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Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior HC190

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Title: Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior HC190


1
Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior (HC-190)
  • Horry County Fire/Rescue

2
COURSE OBJECTIVES
  • Identify and discuss the three sides of the fire
    triangle.
  • Identify the environmental factors of wildland
    fire behavior that affect the start and spread of
    wildland fire.
  • Recognize situations that indicate problem or
    extreme wildland fire behavior.

3
Fire Triangle
4
Fuel Moisture
The amount of water in a fuel expressed as a
percentage of the oven-dry weight of that fuel.
5
Categories of Fuel
  • Light Fuels
  • Leaves
  • Grass
  • Shrubs
  • Heavy Fuels
  • Limbs
  • Logs
  • Stumps

6
Fuel Loading
The quantity of fuels in an area.
7
Horizontal ContinuityandVertical Arrangement
  • Horizontal Continuity
  • Uniform
  • Patchy
  • Vertical Arrangement
  • Ground
  • Surface
  • Aerial

8
Uniform Fuels
9
Patchy Fuels
10
Vertical Arrangement of Fuels
11
Group 2 -- Weather
  • Temperature
  • Wind
  • Increases supply of oxygen.
  • Drives convective heat into adjacent fuels.
  • Influences direction of spread and spotting.
  • Carries away moist air replacing it with drier
    air.
  • Dries fuels.
  • Raises fuel moisture if the air contains
    moisture.
  • Relative Humidity
  • As RH increases, fuel moisture increases.
  • Precipitation
  • Increases fuel moisture

12
Steep Slopes Cause Rapid Fire Spread
Convection and Radiant Heat
13
UNIT 2OBJECTIVES
  • List the indicators of an approaching cold front
    and describe what wind changes to expect.
  • List three common foehn wind conditions and the
    areas in which they occur.
  • Identify a thunderstorm and describe how and when
    it is dangerous.

14
UNIT 2OBJECTIVES (contd)
  • Describe the daily cycle of slope and valley
    winds.
  • Describe the effect relative humidity has on
    wildland fire behavior.
  • Identify the wildland fire environment indicators
    that can produce problem and extreme fire
    behavior.

15
General or Gradient Winds
Large scale winds caused by high and low pressure
systems, but generally influenced and modified in
the lower atmosphere by terrain.
16
Cold Front
A cold front is the boundary line between a
cooler air mass which is replacing a warmer air
mass.
17
Cold Front Winds
18
Indicators of a Cold Front Passage
  • Line of cumulus clouds approaching from the west
    or northwest.
  • Large clouds of dust can precede the arrival of a
    cold front.
  • Shift in winds from the southeast, south, to the
    southwest, and increase in velocity.
  • Winds will be strongest, erratic, and gusty as
    the front reaches you.
  • Winds will continue to shift as the front passes,
    generally resulting in strong, gusty, cool winds
    out of the west and northwest.

19
Cold Fronts are Potentially Dangerous
  • Wind direction will abruptly change.
  • Strong southerly winds ahead of front will drive
    the fire head to the north or northeast.
  • Winds shifting to west or northwest after front
    passes will drive fire head to the east or
    southeast.
  • Rapid drop in relative humidity within 24 hours
    of front passage.

20
Fire Before Cold Front Passage
21
Fire After Cold Front Passage
22
Thunderstorm
A storm produced by a cumulonimbus cloud and
always accompanied by lightning, thunder, and
strong gusty wind.
23
Visual Indicators of Thunderstorm
  • Tall building cumulus cloud.
  • Cauliflower appearance of cloud.
  • Dark flat base.
  • Virga or rain falling from bottom of cloud.
  • Ice crystal top usually in anvil shape with fuzzy
    appearance.

24
Thunderstorm
25
Why a Thunderstorm is Dangerous
  • Produces strong, gusty surface winds affecting
    direction of fire spread.
  • Downdraft winds will be erratic but always away
    from the thunderstorm.
  • Thunderstorms also produce lightning which can be
    dangerous.

26
Sea Breeze Land Breeze
27
Temperature/Relative Humidity Chart
28
Visual Indicators of Unstable Air
Clouds grow vertically and smoke rises to great
heights
Cumulus type clouds
Gusty winds
Good visibility
Dust devils and firewhirls
29
Visual Indicators of Stable Air
Cloud in layers, no vertical motion
Stratus type clouds
Smoke column drifts apart after limited rise
Poor visibility in lower levels due to
accumulation of haze
Fog layers
Steady winds
30
Dust Devils
31
Firewhirls
Generated by intense fires. Can pick up large
burning embers and toss them far across the
fireline causing spot fires.
32
Indicators of Problem and Extreme Fire Behavior
  • Unusually dry fuels.
  • Large amount of light fuel (shrubs, grass,
    needles).
  • Fuels exposed to direct sunlight.
  • Fuels dried by prolonged drought.
  • Ladder fuels that allow a surface fire to move
    into the crowns of shrubs or trees.
  • Crown foliage dried by surface fire.
  • Concentration of snags.

Fuel Indicators
33
Indicators of Problem and Extreme Fire Behavior
Weather Indicators
  • Strong Wind.
  • Sudden changes in wind direction and velocity due
    to weather fronts.
  • High, fast-moving clouds may indicate unusual
    surface winds.
  • Unexpected calm may indicate wind shift.
  • Thunderstorms above or close to the fire.
  • Unusually high temperatures and low relative
    humidity.
  • Dust devils and whirlwinds developing.
  • Bent smoke column.

34
Indicators of Problem and Extreme Fire Behavior
Fire Behavior Indicators
  • Keep an eye on the smoke column. Indicates
    direction of fire spread, location of spot fires,
    and changes in fire intensity.
  • Many simultaneous fires starting or smoldering
    fires beginning to pick up in intensity.
  • Fire begins to torch small groups of trees or
    shrubs.
  • Frequent spot fires occurring.
  • Firewhirls beginning to develop inside the main
    fire.
  • Crown fires.

35
Firefighter TrainingHC-130
  • Horry County Fire/Rescue

36
Firefighter Training, S-130Course Objectives
  • Construct fireline to required standards using
    various methods for construction.
  • Stengthen, reinforce, and use holding actions on
    a fireline.
  • Extinguish the fire with or without the use of
    water.

37
Firefighter Training, S-130Course Objectives
(continued)
  • Assess and report fire situation data (written or
    oral) by radio and/or messenger.
  • Complete assigned tasks in a safe and efficient
    manner.
  • Given an assignment in a wildfire environment,
    describe factors in that environment which could
    impact safety.

38
Unit 1 - Safety Orientation
OBJECTIVES
  • Define Safety.
  • Identify potential hazards and explain the proper
    safety procedures to follow.
  • Explain what the LCES (Lookouts, Communications,
    Escape Routes, and Safety Zones) system is and
    why it is important.

39
Key Safety Methods
  • LCES (Unit 1)
  • Watch Out Situations (Unit 11)
  • Fire Orders (Unit 11)

40
Fire Suppression Hazards
  • Environmental
  • Lightning
  • Snags
  • Fire entrapment
  • Heat stress
  • Hypothermia
  • Darkness
  • Carbon monoxide
  • Dust
  • Biological
  • Snakes
  • Insects
  • Animals
  • Plants
  • Microorganisms
  • Viral Infections

41
Fire Suppression Hazards
  • Equipment
  • Cuts (saws, tools, etc)
  • Burns (pumps, saws)
  • Noise
  • Foreign objects thrown
  • Hand tools
  • Dozers, plows, etc.
  • Vehicle
  • Operating around personnel
  • Mechanical failure (brakes)
  • Shifting cargo
  • Unskilled/inattentive operator

42
Fire Suppression Hazards
  • Aircraft
  • Retardant drops
  • Bucket drops
  • Sling loads
  • Rotor wash
  • Crew transport
  • Fire Environment
  • Fire
  • Burns
  • Smoke
  • Winds
  • Darkness
  • Snags

43
Fire Suppression Hazards
  • Human Factors
  • Attitude
  • Physical condition
  • Experience level
  • Training level
  • Fatigue
  • Critical stress
  • HAZMAT
  • Base/Camp
  • Sleeping areas
  • Sanitation
  • Food

44
Trees and Snags
  • Three categories/conditions of trees
  • Living
  • Dying (still alive, but with little or not chance
    of recovery)
  • Dead (snags)

45
Safety Procedures
  • Any hazard (or potential hazard) should be
    reported to your immediate supervisor
  • Hazardous areas should be flagged
  • Two options for working in an unsafe area
  • Do not enter the area until it is safe
  • Make the area safe to work in, provided you
    receive supervisor approval

46
LCES
A System for Operational Safety
L
Lookout(s)
C
Communication(s)
E
Escape Routes
S
Safety Zone(s)
47
LCES
  • When should a lookout be posted?
  • Back off if the situation is too complex
  • Re-assess tactics
  • Position lookout where both hazard and
    firefighters can be seen
  • Lookout must be trained to observe wildland fire
    environment and recognize anticipate fire
    behavior changes

48
LCES
  • Under what conditions would you need
    communications?
  • Method used to alert firefighters of approaching
    hazards must be prompt and clear
  • Communication devices
  • If you have doubts about your ability to
    communicate, back off. Take the time to get it
    right!

49
LCES
  • Path the firefighter takes from a location
    exposed to danger, to an area free from danger,
    to an area free from danger
  • Effectiveness of escape routes changes
    continuously constantly re-evaluate
  • Escape routes should be established at all times
  • More than one escape route must be available
  • Most common escape route is the fireline

50
LCES
  • Locations where the threatened firefighter may
    find refuge from danger
  • Place where a fire shelter is not needed
  • Safety Zones must be established at all times
    during fireline operations
  • Fireline intensity and safety zone topographic
    location determines the safety zone effectiveness
  • Should be 1½ times the height of the surrounding
    vegetation or large enough to accommodate
    everyone without using fire shelters
  • Stay alert to changing safety zone and escape
    route locations

51
Unit 2 - Firefighter PreparednessLesson A -
Personal Preparedness
OBJECTIVES
  • Develop a list of personal gear needed for an
    extended period away from your home station.
  • Explain why it is necessary to have personal
    protective gear available.
  • Explain the firefighters accountability for
    personal and agency property.
  • Explain the importance of keeping personal gear
    and the assigned area clean and orderly.

52
Unit 2 - Firefighter PreparednessMandatory Items
  • PPE
  • Hard hat
  • Eye protection
  • Hearing protection
  • Gloves
  • NomexTM
  • Shirt
  • Trousers
  • Fire shelter
  • Boots
  • Leather
  • Lace-up, 8 high
  • Vibram soles
  • Leather laces
  • Socks
  • Water bottles
  • Head lamp

53
Unit 2 - Firefighter PreparednessLesson B -
Organization
OBJECTIVES
  • Explain the different types of crew organizations
    commonly used in initial attack and extended
    attack.
  • Given a diagram of the Incident Command System,
    name the two positions, above the level of crew
    boss, that would be contacted if the crew boss is
    not available.

54
Firefighter Preparedness
  • Firefighter Duties and Responsibilities
  • Fireline Handbook, page 92

55
Firefighter Preparedness
  • Crew Organization Advantages?
  • Establishes chain of command
  • Provides pre-planned job assignments
  • Creates teamwork
  • Gives individuals responsibility
  • Reduces confusion
  • Saves time
  • Maintains control
  • Builds esprit de corps
  • Creates respect among crew members

56
Unit 3 - Use of Tools EquipmentLesson A -
Cutting Tools
OBJECTIVES
  • Given two hand tools, personal protective
    equipment, and proper maintenance tools, check
    the condition of each item, perform field
    mainenance, and identify those needing
    replacement.
  • Demonstrate the proper sharpening techniques for
    commonly used tools.

57
Unit 3 - Use of Tools EquipmentLesson A -
Cutting Tools (continued)
OBJECTIVES
  • Given a description of three fireline jobs and a
    choice of tools, state which tool you would use
    for each job.
  • Demonstrate the proper methods of carrying and
    passing tools.
  • Demonstrate the proper spacing when using hand
    tools.
  • Demonstrate the proper placement, near a
    fireline, of one or more tools when not in use.

58
Unit 3 - Use of Tools EquipmentLesson B -
Scraping Tools
OBJECTIVES
  • Given two hand tools and personal protective
    equipment, check the condition of each item,
    identify those that need replacement, and perform
    field maintenance.
  • Demonstrate the proper sharpening techniques for
    commonly used tools.
  • Given a description of three fireline jobs, and a
    choice of three tools, state which tools you
    would use for each job.

59
Unit 3 - Use of Tools EquipmentLesson C -
Smothering Tools
OBJECTIVES
  • Given a swatter or gunnysack and personal
    protective equipment, check the condition of the
    fire swatter and perform field maintenance.
  • Demonstrate the proper methods of carrying and
    passing tools.
  • Demonstrate the proper spacing when using hand
    tools.
  • Demonstrate the proper placement, near a
    fireline, of one or more tools when not in use.

60
Unit 3 - Use of Tools EquipmentLesson D -
Backpack Pump
OBJECTIVES
  • Given a backpack pump and source of water, the
    trainee will demonstrate how to assemble, operate
    and maintain the pump.

61
Unit 5 - Use of Water
OBJECTIVES
  • Correctly identify the water use hand signals.
  • Correctly identify common hose fittings.
  • Identify different diameter hose and thread
    types.
  • Identify and mark non-serviceable sections of
    hose and couplings.

62
Unit 5 - Use of Water
OBJECTIVES (continued)
  • Given hose and points A and B in the field,
    deploy the hose between the points.
  • Describe a fire situation when the straight and
    fog spray nozzle water streams would be used.
  • Demonstrate each of the nozzle settings for
    straight and fog spray patterns.

63
Unit 6 - Suppression
OBJECTIVES
  • Name the parts of a fire
  • Describe three methods of attack on a fire.
  • Describe four kinds of fire control line.
  • Describe the black-line concept.
  • Describe three methods for breaking the fire
    triangle.
  • Describe five fire behavior terms.

64
Unit 11 - Standards for SurvivalLesson A - Watch
Out Situations
OBJECTIVES
  • List the Common Denominators on Tragedy Fires.
  • List and Discuss the Watch Out Situations.

65
Fire Operations in the Urban Interface
  • STRUCTURE TRIAGE

HC-205
66
STRUCTURE TRIAGE
  • OBJECTIVES
  • 1. LIST THE THREE structure triage categories
  • 2. LIST FIVE BASIC factors upon which you base
    your triage decisions and give three examples of
    each.
  • 3. LIST FOUR CONDITIONS that may mean the
    situation is hopeless.

67
TRIAGE CATEGORIES
  • Structures needing little or no attention for now
  • Structures needing protection, but can be saved
  • Structures that are hopeless

Not Threatened
Threatened
Lost, or too dangerous to protect
68
THE DECISION PROCESS
  • Look at the greatest potential threat
  • Look at the probable threat
  • When will the fire arrive and how long will it
    last?
  • What can be done with the resources that are
    available?

69
FACTORS AFFECTING TRIAGE DECISIONS
  • The structure itself
  • The surrounding fuels
  • The fire behavior
  • The available resources
  • Firefighter safety

70
Two houses are adjacent, 50 feet apart
  • House 1 has wooden walls, a wood shake roof, and
    is surrounded on three sides by brush
  • House 2 has better clearance, grass around the
    house, and a composition shingle roof

71
CASE 1
  • The fire is burning only the leaf litter, moving
    progressively past the two houses
  • You have a full tank (500 gallons) of water and
    are the only engine available

72
CASE 2
  • The fire is burning the brush, hitting broadside,
    and threatening both houses at the same time
  • You have 250 gallons of water left, and are the
    only engine available
  • House 1 will receive direct flame impingement
  • House 2 will receive only firebrands

73
CASE 3
  • As in Case 2, the fire is threatening both
    houses about the same time
  • This time you have a full tank of water (500
    gallons)
  • You can protect house 1 as the fire hits it, and
    in the process will significantly diminish the
    intensity at the head of the fire
  • A second engine will be there within 5 minutes

74
WHEN IS IT HOPELESS?
  • The fire is making significant runs
  • Spot fires are igniting
  • Your water supply will not allow you to continue
    firefighting
  • The roof is more than ¼ involved, in windy
    conditions
  • Interior rooms are involved, and windows are
    broken, in windy conditions
  • Your safety is in jeopardy

75
Fire Operations in the Urban Interface
  • TACTICS

76
TACTICS Introduction
  • Key Points
  • Structure defense involves equipment and
    personnel that may (or may not) normally be
    assigned to wildland and/or structural
    firefighting.
  • The moving fire controls the action. Resources
    defending structures must be mobile, resourceful,
    and self-reliant.
  • Each situation is unique there are not simple,
    universal solutions.

77
Reconnaissance
  • Based on what you have seen
  • establish your own priorities
  • consider time remaining
  • consider defensibility of the structures
  • incoming resources

78
Structure Triage
  • Each arriving resource may have to perform
    structure triage

79
ENGINE OPERATIONS
80
Engine Access Positioning
  • Negotiating the access
  • Pay attention to landmarks and hazards
  • Mark the route
  • If necessary, mark escape routes and safety zones
  • Back the engine into position from the last known
    turn around

81
Engine Access Positioning
  • Engine position
  • Park off the road. Do not block access
  • Do not park over flammable vegetation
  • Park on the side of the structure that will
    minimize engine exposure to heat and blowing
    firebrands
  • Park close enough, but not right next to, the
    structure to minimize the length of hose lines
  • Avoid parking near hazards
  • Leave the doors closed and windows rolled up

82
Hose Lines and Nozzles
  • Working lines
  • Hose sizes (1½, 1, ¾)
  • Deploy two lines, one around each side of
    structure, long enough to meet behind structure
    (? 200)
  • Attach lines to the same side of the engine with
    shut-off valve at engine
  • Lead lines behind the engine and not in the exit
    path

83
Hose Lines and Nozzles
  • Engine safety line
  • Protection of the engine and crew
  • Length of hose (1½) long enough to reach around
    the engine
  • It must be easily reached and quickly charged by
    the crew
  • It must not fall off if the engine is in motion

84
Hose Lines and Nozzles
  • Lines left or previously laid
  • Working lines may be abandoned, but are still
    usable
  • Lines can be laid prior to taking up a position
  • Pre-laid lines should be left so they are easily
    noticed (flagged) and within reach of any
    incoming engine

85
Confronting the Fire At the Structure
  • Spotting Zone
  • Firebrands are the major problem
  • Firebrands may ignite new fires a mile or more
    ahead of the main fire
  • Remain mobile enough to quickly reach any point
    within your area of responsibility
  • Constantly check for new ignitions patrol and
    post lookouts
  • Quickly attack any spot fire completely
    extinguish

86
Confronting the Fire At the Structure
  • Full Containment (around structure)
  • The wildland fire can be stopped short of the
    structure
  • The control line will completely surround the
    structure or will join adjacent control lines
  • If possible, simply put the fire out when it
    reaches the control perimeter
  • Otherwise, fire out from a control line

87
Fighting Roof Fires
Flammable roofs are frequently ignited by
wildland fires
  • Small roof fires (about ¼ involved)
  • the key is quick attack
  • extinguished from the outside
  • make sure the fire is out remove shingles

88
Fighting Roof Fires
  • Fire spread across roof
  • assume fire has spread into and through the roof
  • Simultaneously, attack with lines from the
    exterior and interior
  • Only agency personnel trained and equipped for
    structural firefighting are permitted to make an
    interior attack

89
Water Foam Use
  • Water Supplies
  • Save ¼ tank reserve in your engine
  • Take advantage of any opportunity to add water to
    your tank
  • Know the characteristics of the water supply
  • System capacity
  • Flow rate
  • Pressure
  • Reliability

90
Water Foam Use
  • Water application
  • Effective application is the key to conserving
    water and using it effectively
  • Timing of water application
  • Wetting down with water
  • Reducing the heat build-up
  • Duration of the heat wave
  • Peak heat wave tactics

91
Water ApplicationWetting Down w/ Water
  • Wetting down is the application of water to fuel
    and structures before the fire arrives.
  • Wetting down is usually a waste of time and water
  • Wetting down takes large quantities of water, far
    out of proportion to the amount of fire it
    extinguishes
  • In some instances, it can reduce ignitions

92
Water ApplicationReducing Heat Build-up
  • Water can be used to reduce or limit the
    potential build-up of heat
  • Knock down the fire in surface fuels
  • Prevent fire from getting into heavy, troublesome
    fuels

93
Water ApplicationPeak Heat Wave Tactics
  • Do not waste water by spraying at a wall of flame
    during the peak of the heat and smoke
  • Seek refuge in the shade of something that blocks
    intense radiant heat
  • Wait until you have an opportunity to do some
    good with your water
  • Use water when and where you have the advantage,
    not on fire that is burning at its peak intensity

94
Foam Use
  • Class-A foam is an aggregation of small bubbles
    created by injecting air into a mixture of water
    and foam concentrate.
  • When correctly applied, foam
  • excludes the air from the fuel and envelopes the
    volatile combustible vapors at the fuel surface
  • reflects radiant heat and absorbs heat of
    combustion
  • clings to vertical surfaces
  • releases water from its bubble structure at a
    reduced rate

95
Attack Methods Using Foam
  • Direct Attack
  • Indirect Attack
  • Structure Treatment
  • Timing is critical
  • Begin treating the structure 10-15 minutes before
    the expected front begins
  • Foam should be applied to a structure by lofting
    the foam from a distance
  • Fuel tanks and LPG containers can be coated

96
Mobility
  • Stay mobile
  • Do not dig in
  • If you must leave your position at a structure
  • abandon the hose
  • take only the fittings

97
Retreating Returning
  • It may be necessary to retreat due to intensity
    of the fire
  • If returning to a structure after the main fire
    has passed, watch for hazards
  • Downed power lines
  • Burning snags
  • Smoke

98
BACKFIRE
  • A backfire means to set fire along the inner edge
    of a control line to consume the fuel in the path
    of a wildfire and/or change the direction of
    force of the fires convection column
  • The decision to backfire is made by the South
    Carolina Forestry Division, and is only initiated
    by Forestry

99
Fire Size-up Considerations
OBJECTIVES
  • Identify the four fuel groups and describe
    expected fire behavior in each
  • Describe the size-up elements in a fire situation
    and determine the tactics to be used before
    beginning attack

100
03-01-S231-SL
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03-02-S231-SL
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03-03-S231-SL
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03-07-S231-SL
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03-11-S231-SL
106
Exercise 1Group Assignments (Fuel Groups)
  • Each group will be responsible for one of the
    following fuel groups
  • Grass Group
  • Shrub Group
  • Timber Litter Group
  • Logging Slash Group

107
Exercise 1
  • For your assigned fuel group identify and list
    the following
  • Rate of Spread
  • Reaction to water
  • Mop-up time required
  • Duration of heat and flame
  • Best engine type utilized
  • Best method of attack (indirect, direct, or
    parallel)
  • Provide examples of areas of the country where
    this fuel group is a concern

108
Decisions to be Made
  • How to implement LCES
  • How to attack the fire (direct, parallel,
    indirect)
  • Where to attack (rear, flanks, head)
  • Location of control line
  • Type of control line
  • Are resources sufficient?

109
Other Factors that Affect Decision Making
  • Size of fire
  • Fire environment
  • Location of the fire head
  • Time of the day
  • Values/resources at risk

110
Pincer Attack
Pinch off the head of the fire by working both
flanks simultaneously
111
Tandem Attack
Direct attack along perimeter. Control resources
follow one another.
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