Studying Gender

1
Studying Gender

• PYB1 Question 4
• (either copy down these slides or follow the
  instructions on them)
• Chapter 4 in your textbook up to page 101
  with some studies taken from pages 101-116

2

• Look at the following terms and divide them into
  two groups
• Typically Masculine
• Typically Feminine
• Gentle, Yielding, Sympathetic, Independent,
  Loyal, Ambitious, Dominant, Affectionate,
  Competitive, Self-Reliant, Forceful, Aggressive.

3

• Now draw a 5 column table (like a Likert scale)
  and put each term in the position on the scale
  where you feel it should go.

4
Gender Concepts

• A concept - a generalised idea which is used to
  group together a number of objects or similar
  features.
• The Gender concept - a number of ideas which we
  hold referring to aspects of behaviour,
  personality and attitudes relating to males and
  females.

5

• An important aspect of social development is
  forming a self-concept.
• Part of our self-concept relates to whether we
  are male or female the gender concept.
• It has been suggested that there are different
  parts of our gender concept and that they develop
  in a particular sequence.

6

• Sex and Gender tend to be used
  interchangeably, but it might be better to use
  the term sex when referring to our biology,
  while gender is a cultural construct.
• Gender the term gender includes other terms such
  as masculinity, femininity and androgyny. It is a
  concept, which may change over time and across
  cultures.

7

• Sex is a biological term. Male Female. Across
  time and culture, sex is defined in terms of
  reproduction and all societies make the same
  distinction.
• Note, some societies accept the notion of a
  third sex. This is always seen as a combination
  of male and female rather than totally distinct,
  and is also defined in terms of biology.

8

• There are at least five biological categories
• Chromosomal sex XX, XY
• Gonadal sex ovaries testes
• Hormonal sex Androgens (e.g. testosterone),
  Oestrogen Progesterone, we all produce all
  three but males tend to produce more testosterone
  and females more oestrogen progesterone.
• Sex of internal accessory organs males
  prostrate gland, sperm ducts, seminal vesicles
  testes. Females fallopian tubes, womb, ovaries.
• Function and appearance of external genitalia.
  Males penis scrotum. Females outer lips of
  the vagina in females (labia majora).

9

• An individual tends to be either female or male
  in all of the 5 characteristics. Also, it is
  usually on the basis of these characteristics
  (initially external genitalia) that a baby is
  assigned a sex at birth, they influence how a
  child is brought up, how gender identity, gender
  role etc are developed.
• However there are certain disorders that arise
  during pre and post-natal development that lead
  to inconsistencies between these characteristics.

10

• Hermaphroditism a discrepancy between any of the
  5 components of sexual anatomy physiology.
  Often known as intersex cases today.
• Case studies of hermaphrodites highlight the role
  of biological factors in gender role development,
  these include the cases of-
• The case of Mr Blackwell (Goldwyn, 1979)- A true
  hermaphrodite someone who was both biologically
  male female.
• The Batista family (Imperto-McGinley et al, 1974)
  Testosterone insensitivity or testicular
  feminising syndrome (we will come back to this
  one in the future).

11

• Sex Identity - the biological status of being
  male or female.
• Gender Identity the persons concept of whether
  they feel like they are male or female.

12

• Sex Typing - someone may become sex-typed, that
  is they acquire the behaviours, characteristics
  and attitudes that society expects of their sex.
• An ANDROGYNOUS person is someone who possesses a
  large number of both masculine and feminine
  characteristics, behaviours and attitudes. The
  androgynous person is not sex-typed. This person
  will cope better with situations that are either
  male appropriate (e.g. being assertive when
  challenged about something) or female
  appropriate (spending a few minutes nursing a
  pet rabbit), as opposed to a person who is
  sex-typed. The sex-typed person will feel
  uncomfortable in the opposite sex appropriate
  situation.

13
The Bem Sex Role Inventory

• Sandra Bem devised an inventory to measure the
  level of a persons androgyny. See handout and
  additional work for details
• Have a go at finding out your own level of
  androgyny using the inventory.

14

• How did she develop the BSRI?
• Asked 50 male 50 female students to choose 200
  words (characteristics) and rate each one on a
  scale according to how desirable they were for a
  man or woman in the USA.
• Bem chose from the 200 words the highest rated 20
  feminine words, the highest rated 20 masculine
  words and 20 neutral words.
• She ended up with 60 words in the inventory

15

• How is the inventory used to assess androgyny?
• Participants are asked to rate themselves on each
  of the 60 words on a 7 point scale (1 never
  true, 7 always true).
• The feminine and masculine scores are calculated,
  the closer the difference between the two scores
  is to 0 the more androgynous a the person is. Bem
  gave each participant an androgyny score.
• The inventory was checked for reliability and
  validity and concluded to be a culturally
  specific measure of androgyny,

16

• The BSRI is a useful scale when used to correlate
  with other test scores such as mental health,
  self esteem and can indicate whether androgyny is
  related to psychological health.
• Bem claimed that people scoring high on androgyny
  are psychologically more healthy that people who
  do not score high.
• However, Whitely(1985) claimed that the most
  psychologically healthy individuals are those who
  rate themselves as having slightly more masculine
  traits.
• Criticism - The BSRI is culturally specific and
  was devised using students.

17

• Now read the Androgyny handout and answer the
  questions on the handout.

18

• Think about the video
• The Boy who was turned into a girl
• as we look at the next set of slides.

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• Gender role/ sex role- refers to the set of
  behaviours, attitudes and obligations that are
  seen as appropriate by society, for one gender
  and inappropriate for the other, they are part of
  the role of being a boy or a girl, a male or a
  female.

20

• Sex (Gender ) Role Stereotyping -
• Stereotyping occurs when the beliefs about the
  characteristics of males or females in general
  are used as a basis for the judgement of an
  individual man (boy) and woman (girl).
• In the case of sex (gender) role stereotyping, an
  individual may be expected to think and act in
  certain way on the basis of their sex.
• For example, a person who thinks that Sally
  should want to be a homemaker because all females
  want to be homemakers and Sally is a female, is
  sex role stereotyping Sally.

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Do people stereotype others on the basis of their
sex? Research evidence-

• Condry Condry (1976)
• Aim To find out if adults interpret a childs
  emotional response differently depending upon the
  sex of the child. (i.e. Do the adults sexrole
  stereotype the child?)

22

• Method Laboratory experiment method used.
• Task two groups of adults were shown a video of
  9 month old child (same video of the same child
  for both groups of adults). Child was introduced
  as David to one group and Dana to the other
  group. Child was seen playing with toys e.g
  Jack-in-box. Participants were asked to describe
  the childs emotional response to the Jack-in-box
  as either angry or frightened. The actual
  response of the child on the video was unclear.
• IV name of child David or Dana
• DV description of childs emotional response.
• Independent groups design two groups of adults

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• Findings
• Participants tended to label
• David angry
• Dana Frightened
• Conclusion
• The labelling of a childs emotional response
  was influenced by the childs presumed sex. That
  is, the adults were sex role stereotyping the
  child.

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When and where do children start to be influenced
by gender role stereotypes?

• Children as they develop a sense of who they are
  as male or female (their gender role), look
  around for images in the world to see how they
  fit in.
• At 6 years old they seem to have fixed views
  about gender roles, but these change with
  experience.
• This suggests that children are not passively
  conditioned, but that learning is an active two
  way process.

25
Studying gender role stereotypes in children

• Asking children directly about gender role
  stereotypes raises ethical issues, it might
  expose them to negative ideas with which they are
  unfamiliar.
• Studies have to be carefully planned to avoid
  such ethical issues.

26
Damon(1977)

• Aim To find out if the understanding of Gender
  roles develops with age.
• Method - Interview method used
• Participants - Children aged 4 9
• Task - told them a story about a boy called
  George who enjoyed playing with dolls, his
  parents wanted to discourage him and told him
  only girls play with dolls.
• Children were asked questions about whether it
  was all right for George to play with dolls if he
  wanted to?

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• Findings
• 4 year olds said it was alright for George to
  play with dolls
• 6 year olds said it was wrong for George to play
  with dolls
• 9 year olds said it was unusual, but nothing
  wrong with George playing with dolls if he wanted
  to .
• What are the DV IV in this study?

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• IV age of children, three age groups compared
  4, 6 9 year olds.
• DV Childs answer to the question is it alright
  for George to play with dolls if he wants to?
• Conclusion Childrens views of gender roles
  changes with age from not having fixed
  stereotyped views (age 4) through a strongly
  stereotyped view (age 6) to a more flexible view
  (age9).

29
Williams (1986)

• Aim To investigate the effect of the media
• on gender role stereotypes in children.
• Method - Natural experiment
• Canadian town (NOTEL)
• TV introduced into this town
• for the first time.
• Assessed attitudes of children before TV
  introduced and 2 years after TV introduced.
• Control group of children, who had been exposed
  to TV for a long time also assessed at the same
  time.

30

• Findings
• From the comparison between the control group and
  the NOTEL group
• Children exposed to TV had stronger gender
  stereotypes than children who were not exposed to
  TV
• From the NOTEL group - a before after
  introducing TV comparison
• NOTEL children showed stronger stereotypes than
  they had 2 years earlier, i.e. before TV
  introduced.

31

• Conclusion TV is a powerful force in teaching
  children about stereotypes (therefore producers
  should pay attention to the gender stereotypes
  portrayed on TV).

32

• The role of Nature Nurture in the
  development of gender identity

33

• Nature -
• Genetic hormonal factors determine behaviour,
  so gender identity, the feeling of being a boy
  or a girl, is dictated by our genes, brain and
  hormones.
• Anatomy is destiny
• It is a deterministic view of development
• Psychoanalysts and Biological psychologists take
  this view
• They study brain differences, the effects of sex
  hormones, case studies of people with unusual
  backgrounds relating to hormones and chromosomes.

34

• Nurture
• Behaviour is learned, so the feeling of being a
  boy or a girl, is determined by the way we
  are brought up, by the experiences we are exposed
  to and the way we are treated.
• Learning Theorists and Cognitive Psychologists
  take this view.
• They take an interest in cross-cultural studies,
  observational studies in laboratories or the
  natural environment, and content analysis.

35
Studies looking at the nature nurture debate in
the development of GENDER IDENTITY

• Case Studies (of unusual cases)
• Money Erhart (1972)
• The case of Bruce Reimer
• Imperarto McGinley (1979)
• The Batista Family

36
Money Erhart (1972)The case of Bruce Reimer

• Aim To investigate whether social
  environmental factors (nurture) or biological
  factors (nature) influenced gender identity.
• Method
• Case study of a boy who was brought up as a girl
  as a result of an accident during circumcision
  surgery.

37

• Details about the case-
• Baby twin boys had problem
• urinating advised parents to have
  them circumcised.
• Baby Bruces operation went wrong his penis was
  burned off.
• Dr Money psychologist believed that gender
  identity was a result of the way the child was
  brought up. He advised that Bruce should be given
  corrective surgery and raised as a girl.

38

• This was done at the age of 21 months.
• His parents began treating him like a girl Brenda
  - longer hair, dresses, dolls etc.
• During adolescence Brenda was given oestrogen to
  promote the development of breasts.

39

• Findings-
• Dr Money reported in his case study report that
  Brenda was a well adjusted girl and that his
  theory that gender identity is formed through
  interaction with the environment (nurture) was
  correct. BUT - We now know that
• By the age of 9 Brenda was an unhappy girl
• At adolescence Brenda refused to have further
  surgery
• When her parents finally told her the truth she
  decided to change back to being a boy.

40
Brenda called himself David and later married a
woman with two children. This implies that the
influence of Nature on gender identity
development is stronger than Nurture.
Conclusion Money concluded that social factors
(Nurture) determines gender identity BUT. . . We
can conclude that Money was wrong and that
biological factors (Nature) is important in
gender identity development.
41
Imperarto McGinley (1979)The Batista Family

• Aim To investigate whether social
  environmental factors (nurture) or biological
  factors (nature) influenced gender identity.
• Method
• Case study of a group of people called
  Machi-embra who live in the Dominican republic.
  Many of the boys have a rare form of
  pseudo-hermaphroditism caused by a faulty gene
  inherited from a distant ancestor.

42

• Details about the case.
• Boys genetically male (XY) but were born with
  female appearance and remained female in
  appearance until puberty.
• At puberty they developed like normal males.
• They had been brought up as girls and socialised
  into a female role.
• At puberty they had to choose between staying as
  a woman or changing roles and become a man.

43

• Findings
• Most of the adolescents choose to take on the
  male role, they became men, married and raised
  children as traditional males.
• BUT
• Not all of them did this, at least one remained
  female.
• The Machi-embra society is very male dominated
  and this may have influenced their decision to
  become men, they may have felt that they would
  get a better deal out of life as a man than as a
  woman.

44

• Conclusion
• The case study suggests that biological factors
  (nature) influenced gender identity to a greater
  extent than social environmental factors
  (nurture). But remember our earlier comments.

45

• In the debate between nature and nurture, about
  which one does form our gender identity, the
  truth probably lies in a subtle combination of
  the two.
• Dr Use Meyer, Genewatch Uk
• Gathering knowledge and understanding is a good
  thing but we need a bit of humanity we are not
  just a collection of genes.

46

• Cultural Diversity in gender roles- is the
  recognition that the members of different
  cultures and ethnic groups are socialised to
  behave in ways that are considered appropriate
  for male and females , for that specific
  culture/society.
• In other words gender roles vary from culture
  to culture.

47

• Cross cultural case studies give insight into the
  role of nature and nurture in gender development.
• One well documented study is that of Margaret
  Mead (1930s)which points to the differences
  between cultures as evidence of environmental
  factors playing a vital role in the development
  of gender identity.

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• Margaret Mead (1930s)
• Aim To see whether gender role was culturally
  (nurture) or biologically determined (nature)
• Method Cross-cultural research using Participant
  observation for several weeks Mead lived among
  the three people groups.
• Participants-
• The Arapesh tribe
• The Mundugamor tribe
• The Tchambuli tribe

49

• Findings
• Arapesh both genders showed feminine traits
• Mundugamor both genders showed masculine
  traits
• Tchambuli distinct gender roles, men were
  artistic while the women held the social and
  economic power (i.e. the reverse of the roles we
  expect in the west).

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• Conclusion- Gender roles are culturally
  determined (Nurture).
• BUT
• Mead was a woman in the 1930s this may have
  influenced her choice of societies to study and
  her interpretations of her observations. Was
  there a political dimension to her work as she
  studied cultural relativity?
• Many have argued that her data was inaccurate and
  often based on second hand information rather
  than first hand.

51

• Mead defined the Arapesh as feminine and the
  Mungudamor as masculine. If these people had
  been asked to define masculine feminine traits
  would they have agreed? Mead suggested that
  western definitions of gender roles are the norm
  and that the Tchambuli had reversed gender roles
  (but is this the case?).
• However, regardless of the flaws in her work, the
  fundamental findings of cultural differences in
  gender behaviour and personality is not contested
  and stimulated further research

52
Other examples of a cross-cultural studies

• Framboise, Heyle Ozer (1990)
• Aim To investigate whether gender roles are
  consistent across cultures (if they are we can
  assume that they are the result of nature rather
  than nurture).
• Method Cross-cultural study using interviews and
  observations of three Indian groups in North
  America.

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• Findings
• Clearly defined gender roles but different from
  traditional western roles. Women are much more
  aggressive and assertive (Warrior Women) and play
  a large part when conflict occurs between the
  communities.
• Conclusion
• Gender roles are not consistent across cultures,
  suggesting that nurture has a large part to play
  in gender role development.

54

• Gilbert Herdt (1994) studied the Navajo society
  where they recognise three genders, male, female
  and nadle. Nadles have special status and are
  consulted for their wisdom and skills. This again
  suggests that gender roles are culturally
  determined.

55

• Quick Test on Gender concepts
• Sex is a biological term, identify the 5 criteria
  used to determine biological sex.
• What does the term gender refer to?
• What does the term Gender Identity mean?
• How would you describe some one who is
  androgynous?
• Who devised the first psychometric test to
  measure androgyny?
• What does the term gender role mean?
• Give an example of a gender role stereotype for a
  female.
• What is the term that is used to refer to the
  role of experience in the development of gender
  identity?.

56

• Exercise on evaluation skills in the topic of
  gender
• Have a go at the cut and stick exercise on
  Gender Concepts.

57
For the exam-

• Make sure you can describe a study that
  investigates each concept we have looked at.
  (Aim, Method, Findings Conclusion)
• You can find all the studies you need in the
  textbook and your lesson notes.
• A list of all of the studies and the topics they
  investigated is provided.

58
Methods used to study Gender COPY this down

• Ethical Issues-
• Psychological societies constantly update
  guidelines, therefore what was considered ethical
  20 years ago may not be to day
• Failure to keep to guidelines during research
  results in sanctions e.g non-publication of
  findings.
• Guidelines are there to protect participants and
  to ensure that they are treated with respect.

59

• The BPS Guidelines include the following, think
  how each one might apply to the gender studies we
  have looked at and will look at-
• Competence of the researcher.
• Informed consent
• Deception
• Debriefing
• The right to withdraw
• Confidentiality
• Protection of participants
• Observation studies - privacy

60

• The participant is not taking part in the
  research just to discover about themselves but to
  help the scientist understand others. This can
  pose a wider moral dilemma - dose the end
  justify the means?. In other words is it
  sometimes necessary not to follow the BPS
  guidelines in order to get the findings needed to
  benefit society?

61

• Activity 1 In pairs discuss the following, each
  person should take a turn at expressing their
  opinion.
• Imagine that you are conducting a piece of
  research in line with the BPS ethical guidelines.
  
• During the research it becomes clear to you that
  there is a possibility of harm to a participant.
  At the same time you believe that the findings of
  the research will have benefits to society in
  general. What should you do? Is the individual
  more important than society?

62

• Activity 2 In pairs discuss the following, each
  person should take a turn to express their views.
• Imagine that you have conducted a piece of
  research that is fully in line with ethical
  principles and no participants have been harmed
  in your research.
• Your results suggest that there are genetic
  differences between men and women which affect
  their behaviour.
• Your research is being used by politicians to
  justify changes in education which you believe
  are harmful and you did not anticipate their
  actions. Should you have conducted your
  research?

63

• Gender Games in a Primary Classroom the role of
  the teachers and pupils Lloyd (1989)(copy
  study)
• Aim of study- to consider how children construct
  their gender identity during their first year at
  school.
• Method- Non-participant Observation lasting 1
  year. Records of the behaviour and conversations
  of children and teachers.
• Identify the ethical issues the researcher would
  need to consider before conducting the research.
• Think about how the researchers might have dealt
  with each of them?

64

• Findings-
• Playing with objects boys focussed on
  construction play, girls divided time between
  construction and role play.
• Use of space girls spread their use of space
  evenly, boys were focussed in the areas where
  they played (claiming territory).
• Discussion of findings during debriefing with
  teachers revealed they were willing to let the
  boys occupy the construction activities and
  certain space because they believed that it was
  natural for boys to be more active, stronger and
  require more space than girls.
• Conclusion - Children who had already formed a
  gender identity were having it reinforced by the
  attitudes and actions of teachers.

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• Can you think of any other ethical issues that
  might have arisen or did arise during this
  research?

66

• Possible observation of behaviour that may have
  affected the children's development
• Should the researcher stop the study and report
  the observations and risk not completing the
  study or carry on with the research
• Is the role of the researcher to help to change
  society (make judgements) or to simply report
  what they observe.

67

• The Research Methods- (copy)
• Case Studies
• Cross Cultural Studies
• Experiments
• Observation Studies
• Surveys (Questionnaires Interviews)
• Content Analysis

68

• You need to be able to -
• Describe each method
• Explain two advantages of each method
• Explain two disadvantages of each method
• Identify discuss the ethical issues relevant to
  each method
• Describe at least one gender study for each
  method (see available list of studies, studies
  are either in your notes on in the textbook).

69

• Case Studies
• You need to look back at the Research Methods
  section of the course (notes and textbook).
• The two examples of gender research are
• Bruce Reimer
• The Batista Family
• Cross Cultural Studies
• Look at the earlier notes on Cultural Diversity
• The two examples of gender research are
• Margaret Meads study
• Fromboise et als study

70

• Surveys Interviews and Questionnaires
• Look back at the notes on Interviews and
  questionnaires in the Research Methods section of
  the course.
• The two examples of the survey method in gender
  studies are
• The BSRI it is an inventory ( a type of
  questionnaire)
• Damons study interviews of children aged
  between 4 9.

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• Before we move on to look at the other three
  methods have a go at this timed exam question.
  You have 20 minutes to answer it , use your notes
  and the book if you need to.
• In relation to either the Case Study method or
  the Survey method, discuss at least one strength
  and one weakness of using that method to study
  gender. Refer to empirical research in your
  answer. (10 marks)

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• Experiments
• See research methods notes for details of the
  following-
• Experiments must have an IV a DV
• Laboratory, Field Natural advantages
  disadvantages of each type

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• The materials used can affect the findings
• In past strong gender differences have been found
  but some of these may have been due to the design
  of the experiment the use of materials, rather
  than the presence of actual differences.
• e.g. Piaget Inhelder (1958) level of liquid
  in bottle, suggested females had poor special
  ability when compared to males. But use of actual
  bottle rather than drawing of one suggests that
  this is not so. The materials used in the
  experiment may have influenced performance.

74

• The two examples of the experimental method used
  in gender research are-
• Condry Condry (the David Dana study in your
  lesson notes) Lab experiment
• Williams (the NOTEL study in your lesson notes
  and text book) Natural experiment

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• This is a typical exam question on experiments in
  gender (Copy the question on a new sheet of
  paper)
• Discuss at least one ethical and one
  methodological issue which arises when
  psychologists use the experimental method to
  investigate gender. Refer to at least one study
  or example to support your answer. (10 marks)

76

• Observation studies
• Look back at the Research Methods section of the
  course to remind yourself of Observational
  Research.
• The examples of Observational Research in Gender
  are ones we have not yet looked at. They are in
  the text book. We will look at them together now.
• Get out your textbooks Lets first read pg 98.

77

• We will read these studies together and write the
  details down in your notes.
• Dweck (1978) The effect of positive feedback in
  the classroom pg 99 - Learn from textbook
• Fagot (1985) Reinforcement in 2-year old
  playgroup children pg 107-108 Learn from the
  textbook.
• Lloyd (1989) Gender games in a primary classroom
  pg 94-95 this is also in your lesson notes.

78

• Content Analysis
• What is it?
• A form of observation of different types of
  communication. The communication can be visual
  or verbal interpersonal as in conversations or
  one way as in books films and TV, essays,
  adverts. It is an indirect study of human
  behaviour by studying what humans produce.
• Those observing the content need to clearly
  identify the specific factors on which their
  observation will focus. E.g. the gender of the
  main character in a number of childrens books.

79

• Conducting a content analysis-
• Sampling large sample of material must be used
• Coding system must have clearly defined units
  of what it is you are counting
• Procedure usually a naive researcher carries
  out the coding of the material.
• Analysis descriptive inferential statistics
• Reporting research is written up in the
  conventional research report format.

80

• Advantages
• Converts qualitative data into quantitative data
  (e.g. by counting the frequency with which a
  behaviour occurs, the duration of sentences, the
  vocabulary used and so on).
• The quantitative data can then be analysed.
• If a pre-determined coding system is used for
  collecting the data so collection will be
  objective.
• If public material is analysed there are very
  few ethical issues
• Replication is possible.

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• Disadvantages -
• Time consuming. Involves reading, viewing a
  large amount of material.
• Possibility of observer bias. Can get round this
  by using naive observer.
• The material may be taken out of context for
  example, the behaviour of males and females coded
  from a selection of stories may be distorted when
  viewed on its own rather than in the context of
  the whole story.

82

• Examples in the topic of gender are-
• Lobben (1974) British Reading Schemes
  pg. 97-98 Learn the study from the textbook.
• Craig (1992) Prime time TV adverts in lesson
  notes only - copy them down now-

83

• Craig (1992)
• Aim-
• Do advertisers use gender stereotypes in their
  commercials.
• Method-
• Content analysis of primetime TV adverts of over
  the counter drug commercials and non-drug
  commercials. Looking at the way males and females
  were portrayed in the commercials.

84

• Findings-
• Females appeared more often than males in drug
  commercials
• Females portrayed as the experts on home medical
  care, often caring for sick children.
• Conclusion-
• In drug adverts females are portrayed in terms of
  traditional western gender stereotypes as the
  nurturers and caregivers.

85
Exam preparation

• For this section of the topic of gender you need
  to do the following.
• The cut n stick activity on Methods used to
  study gender.
• Fill in the table of studies and methods on the
  summary handout.
• Using the handout of the research methods
  summaries, write a short essay based on each
  research method Discussing one strength and
  one weakness of the method referring to
  empirical research in your answer.