Sociology

1
Sociology

• Chapter One
• Understanding Sociology

2
What is Sociology?

• Scientific study of social behavior

3
What is Sociology?

• Scientific study of social behavior
• Sociological perspective

4
What is Sociology?

• Scientific study of social behavior
• Sociological perspective
• Attempt to discover social facts and the forces
  that explain them

5
Sociological Imagination

• C Wright Mills - 1916-1962

6
Sociological Imagination

• C Wright Mills - 1916-1962
• Refers to an awareness of the relationship
  between the individual and society

7
Sociological Imagination

• C Wright Mills - 1916-1962
• Refers to an awareness of the relationship
  between the individual and society
• Significance is to look at ones own society from
  the perspective of an outsider

8
Sociological Imagination

• C Wright Mills - 1916-1962
• Refers to an awareness of the relationship
  between the individual and society
• Significance is to look at ones own society from
  the perspective of an outsider
• Remove personal experiences and cultural biases

9
Sociological Imagination

• C Wright Mills - 1916-1962
• Refers to an awareness of the relationship
  between the individual and society
• Significance is to look at ones own society from
  the perspective of an outsider
• Remove personal experiences and cultural biases
• Read sociological imagination

10
Two Basic Sociological Questions

• What holds society together?

11
Two Basic Sociological Questions

• What holds society together?
• What is the relationship between the individual
  and society?

12
Development of Sociology

• Early Thinkers

13
Auguste Comte 1798-1857

• Philosopher who helped develop positivism

14
Auguste Comte 1798-1857

• Philosopher who helped develop positivism
• The only real knowledge is scientific knowledge
  (positive affirmation of theories through strict
  scientific method

15
Auguste Comte 1798-1857

• Philosopher who helped develop positivism
• The only real knowledge is scientific knowledge
  (positive affirmation of theories through strict
  scientific method
• Father of Sociology

16
Auguste Comte 1798-1857

• Philosopher who helped develop positivism
• The only real knowledge is scientific knowledge
  (positive affirmation of theories through strict
  scientific method
• Father of Sociology
• Applied positivist philosophy to a study of
  society

17
Auguste Comte 1798-1857

• Philosopher who helped develop positivism
• The only real knowledge is scientific knowledge
  (positive affirmation of theories through strict
  scientific method
• Father of Sociology
• Applied positivist philosophy to a study of
  society
• Believed a theoretical science of society and a
  systematic investigation of behavior could
  improve society

18
Harriet Martineau 1802-1876

• Translated Comtes works into English

19
Harriet Martineau 1802-1876

• Translated Comtes works into English
• Emphasized the impact of the economy, law,
  health, and population of a society on social
  behaviors

20
Harriet Martineau 1802-1876

• Translated Comtes works into English
• Emphasized the impact of the economy, law,
  health, and population of a society on social
  behaviors
• Focused especially on the rights of women, the
  end of slavery, and religious tolerance

21
Harriet Martineau 1802-1876

• Translated Comtes works into English
• Emphasized the impact of the economy, law,
  health, and population of a society on social
  behaviors
• Focused especially on the rights of women, the
  end of slavery, and religious tolerance
• Believed sociologists should not just study and
  theorize but should help make change

22
Herbert Spencer - 1820-1903

• Applied Darwins concept of evolution to society

23
Herbert Spencer - 1820-1903

• Applied Darwins concept of evolution to society
• Helped to explain how societies change over time

24
Herbert Spencer - 1820-1903

• Applied Darwins concept of evolution to society
• Helped to explain how societies change over time
• Did not believe sociologists should help make
  change because societies change on their own

25
Herbert Spencer - 1820-1903

• Applied Darwins concept of evolution to society
• Helped to explain how societies change over time
• Did not believe sociologists should help make
  change because societies change on their own
• Also applied Darwins concept of survival of the
  fittest

26
Herbert Spencer - 1820-1903

• Applied Darwins concept of evolution to society
• Helped to explain how societies change over time
• Did not believe sociologists should help make
  change because societies change on their own
• Also applied Darwins concept of survival of the
  fittest
• Helped to explain why it was natural, for
  example, that some people were wealthy and others
  were poor

27
Emile Durkheim - 1858-1917

• Famous suicide study suggested that suicide,
  while a solitary act, is related to social life

28
Emile Durkheim - 1858-1917

• Famous suicide study suggested that suicide,
  while a solitary act, is related to social life
• Ex - found Protestants, the unmarried, and
  soldiers more likely than Catholics, the married
  and civilians respectively to commit suicide

29
Emile Durkheim - 1858-1917

• Famous suicide study suggested that suicide,
  while a solitary act, is related to social life
• Ex - found Protestants, the unmarried, and
  soldiers more likely than Catholics, the married
  and civilians respectively to commit suicide
• The science of his findings allowed for a
  predictive element

30
Emile Durkheim - 1858-1917

• Famous suicide study suggested that suicide,
  while a solitary act, is related to social life
• Ex - found Protestants, the unmarried, and
  soldiers more likely than Catholics, the married
  and civilians respectively to commit suicide
• The science of his findings allowed for a
  predictive element
• Other studies focused on the function religion
  plays in determining what a society determines to
  be sacred

31
Emile Durkheim - 1858-1917

• Famous suicide study suggested that suicide,
  while a solitary act, is related to social life
• Ex - found Protestants, the unmarried, and
  soldiers more likely than Catholics, the married
  and civilians respectively to commit suicide
• The science of his findings allowed for a
  predictive element
• Other studies focused on the function religion
  plays in determining what a society determines to
  be sacred
• In this way, religion helps to reinforce a
  groups solidarity

32
Emile Durkheim - 1858-1917

• Durkheim addressed the consequences of work
  (specifically the division of labor) on modern
  society

33
Emile Durkheim - 1858-1917

• Durkheim addressed the consequences of work
  (specifically the division of labor) on modern
  society
• The division of labor leads to specialization
  which in turn leads to anomie

34
Emile Durkheim - 1858-1917

• Durkheim addressed the consequences of work
  (specifically the division of labor) on modern
  society
• The division of labor leads to specialization
  which in turn leads to anomie
• Anomie is a social state of being that occurs
  when people have lost their sense of purpose -
  often during a period of dramatic social change

35
Emile Durkheim - 1858-1917

• Durkheim addressed the consequences of work
  (specifically the division of labor) on modern
  society
• The division of labor leads to specialization
  which in turn leads to anomie
• Anomie is a social state of being that occurs
  when people have lost their sense of purpose -
  often during a period of dramatic social change
• Durkheim related incidences of anomie to suicide
  rates

36
Emile Durkheim - 1858-1917

• Durkheim addressed the consequences of work
  (specifically the division of labor) on modern
  society
• The division of labor leads to specialization
  which in turn leads to anomie
• Anomie is a social state of being that occurs
  when people have lost their sense of purpose -
  often during a period of dramatic social change
• Durkheim related incidences of anomie to suicide
  rates
• In order to deal with the (often) severe
  consequences of anomie, Durkheim advocated the
  creation of new social groups to provide a sense
  of belonging to members of society

37
Emile Durkheim - 1858-1917

• Durkheim addressed the consequences of work
  (specifically the division of labor) on modern
  society
• The division of labor leads to specialization
  which in turn leads to anomie
• Anomie is a social state of being that occurs
  when people have lost their sense of purpose -
  often during a period of dramatic social change
• Durkheim related incidences of anomie to suicide
  rates
• In order to deal with the (often) severe
  consequences of anomie, Durkheim advocated the
  creation of new social groups to provide a sense
  of belonging to members of society
• Ex - labor unions, political parties, etc

38
Max Weber - 1864-1920

• Argued that sociologists should adopt verstehen
  (understanding, insight) in their studies

39
Max Weber - 1864-1920

• Argued that sociologists should adopt verstehen
  (understanding, insight) in their studies
• Sociology is a subjective, not an objective,
  science

40
Max Weber - 1864-1920

• Argued that sociologists should adopt verstehen
  (understanding, insight) in their studies
• Sociology is a subjective, not an objective,
  science
• As such, it is vital to understand the meanings
  people give to their own actions - how they
  explain their own behavior

41
Max Weber - 1864-1920

• Argued that sociologists should adopt verstehen
  (understanding, insight) in their studies
• Sociology is a subjective, not an objective,
  science
• As such, it is vital to understand the meanings
  people give to their own actions - how they
  explain their own behavior
• Weber also developed the ideal type

42
Max Weber - 1864-1920

• Argued that sociologists should adopt verstehen
  (understanding, insight) in their studies
• Sociology is a subjective, not an objective,
  science
• As such, it is vital to understand the meanings
  people give to their own actions - how they
  explain their own behavior
• Weber also developed the ideal type
• The ideal type is a construct for evaluating
  specific cases

43
Max Weber - 1864-1920

• Argued that sociologists should adopt verstehen
  (understanding, insight) in their studies
• Sociology is a subjective, not an objective,
  science
• As such, it is vital to understand the meanings
  people give to their own actions - how they
  explain their own behavior
• Weber also developed the ideal type
• The ideal type is a construct for evaluating
  specific cases
• Used the ideal type to assess characteristics of
  bureaucracies, religions, the family, economies,
  and more

44
Karl Marx - 1818-1883

• Argued the history of all hitherto existing
  society is the history of class struggles

45
Karl Marx - 1818-1883

• Argued the history of all hitherto existing
  society is the history of class struggles
• Believed the owners of the means of production
  exploited the masses

46
Karl Marx - 1818-1883

• Argued the history of all hitherto existing
  society is the history of class struggles
• Believed the owners of the means of production
  exploited the masses
• In the capitalist epoch, the owners are referred
  to as the bourgeoisie, and the masses (labor),
  the proletariat

47
Karl Marx - 1818-1883

• Argued the history of all hitherto existing
  society is the history of class struggles
• Believed the owners of the means of production
  exploited the masses
• In the capitalist epoch, the owners are referred
  to as the bourgeoisie, and the masses (labor),
  the proletariat
• Exploitation occurs because the owners of
  production control the social, political, and
  economic system

48
Karl Marx - 1818-1883

• Argued the history of all hitherto existing
  society is the history of class struggles
• Believed the owners of the means of production
  exploited the masses
• In the capitalist epoch, the owners are referred
  to as the bourgeoisie, and the masses (labor),
  the proletariat
• Exploitation occurs because the owners of
  production control the social, political, and
  economic system
• Workers are obligated to overthrow the existing
  class system

49
Charles Cooley - 1864-1929

• Used the sociological perspective to look at
  smaller units of society - intimate groups like
  families, gangs, friendships, etc

50
Charles Cooley - 1864-1929

• Used the sociological perspective to look at
  smaller units of society - intimate groups like
  families, gangs, friendships, etc
• He believed that the behaviors of smaller groups
  often dictate the ideals, beliefs, and values of
  greater society

51
Jane Addams - 1860-1935

• Co-founded Hull House - community center in urban
  Chicago

52
Jane Addams - 1860-1935

• Co-founded Hull House - community center in urban
  Chicago
• Social reformer who believed sociologists should
  take an active role creating change

53
Jane Addams - 1860-1935

• Co-founded Hull House - community center in urban
  Chicago
• Social reformer who believed sociologists should
  take an active role creating change
• Worked to prevent racial segregation in Chicago
  public schools

54
Jane Addams - 1860-1935

• Co-founded Hull House - community center in urban
  Chicago
• Social reformer who believed sociologists should
  take an active role creating change
• Worked to prevent racial segregation in Chicago
  public schools
• Helped to stablish a juvenile court system and
  womens trade union

55
George Herbert Mead - 1863-1931

• Focused on minute forms of communication between
  humans - smiles, frowns, etc - and how those
  interactions are influenced by larger society

56
George Herbert Mead - 1863-1931

• Focused on minute forms of communication between
  humans - smiles, frowns, etc - and how those
  interactions are influenced by larger society
• Believed we learn what is socially appropriate
  behavior based on the reactions we receive from
  others

57
George Herbert Mead - 1863-1931

• Focused on minute forms of communication between
  humans - smiles, frowns, etc - and how those
  interactions are influenced by larger society
• Believed we learn what is socially appropriate
  behavior based on the reactions we receive from
  others
• Also, distinguished between the me and the I

58
George Herbert Mead - 1863-1931

• Focused on minute forms of communication between
  humans - smiles, frowns, etc - and how those
  interactions are influenced by larger society
• Believed we learn what is socially appropriate
  behavior based on the reactions we receive from
  others
• Also, distinguished between the me and the I
• The me is the individual as distinct from
  others

59
George Herbert Mead - 1863-1931

• Focused on minute forms of communication between
  humans - smiles, frowns, etc - and how those
  interactions are influenced by larger society
• Believed we learn what is socially appropriate
  behavior based on the reactions we receive from
  others
• Also, distinguished between the me and the I
• The me is the individual as distinct from
  others
• The I is the personal beliefs, opinions, etc of
  an individual

60
Talcott Parsons - 1902-1979

• Viewed society as a vast network of connected
  parts

61
Talcott Parsons - 1902-1979

• Viewed society as a vast network of connected
  parts
• Each part is responsible for performing an
  identifiably useful function that contributes to
  the overall stability of society

62
Talcott Parsons - 1902-1979

• Viewed society as a vast network of connected
  parts
• Each part is responsible for performing an
  identifiably useful function that contributes to
  the overall stability of society
• If a part does not perform a useful function, it
  will not be passed on to next generation

63
Robert Merton - 1910-2003

• Famous for studies of deviant behavior

64
Robert Merton - 1910-2003

• Famous for studies of deviant behavior
• Deviance refers to behaviors that depart from
  socially accepted goals and/or the socially
  accepted means of attaining them

65
Robert Merton - 1910-2003

• Famous for studies of deviant behavior
• Deviance refers to behaviors that depart from
  socially accepted goals and/or the socially
  accepted means of attaining them
• Studies helped to explain why crime rates are
  much higher among societys poor

66
Robert Merton - 1910-2003

• Famous for studies of deviant behavior
• Deviance refers to behaviors that depart from
  socially accepted goals and/or the socially
  accepted means of attaining them
• Studies helped to explain why crime rates are
  much higher among societys poor
• Also sought to combine macro- and micro-level
  approaches to studying society

67
Robert Merton - 1910-2003

• Famous for studies of deviant behavior
• Deviance refers to behaviors that depart from
  socially accepted goals and/or the socially
  accepted means of attaining them
• Studies helped to explain why crime rates are
  much higher among societys poor
• Also sought to combine macro- and micro-level
  approaches to studying society
• Macrosociology concentrates on large-scale
  phenomenon or entire civilizations

68
Robert Merton - 1910-2003

• Famous for studies of deviant behavior
• Deviance refers to behaviors that depart from
  socially accepted goals and/or the socially
  accepted means of attaining them
• Studies helped to explain why crime rates are
  much higher among societys poor
• Also sought to combine macro- and micro-level
  approaches to studying society
• Macrosociology concentrates on large-scale
  phenomenon or entire civilizations
• Microsociology concentrates on smaller groups,
  often through experimentation

69
Erving Goffman - 1922-1982

• Developed the dramaturgical approach to sociology
  which views people as theater performers

70
Erving Goffman - 1922-1982

• Developed the dramaturgical approach to sociology
  which views people as theater performers
• Humans in social situations, like actors on a
  stage working to an audience, seek to project a
  particular image to society at large

71
Erving Goffman - 1922-1982

• Developed the dramaturgical approach to sociology
  which views people as theater performers
• Humans in social situations, like actors on a
  stage working to an audience, seek to project a
  particular image to society at large
• This view understands that society is not static
  - it is constantly changing

72
Erving Goffman - 1922-1982

• Developed the dramaturgical approach to sociology
  which views people as theater performers
• Humans in social situations, like actors on a
  stage working to an audience, seek to project a
  particular image to society at large
• This view understands that society is not static
  - it is constantly changing
• Thus, we change our behaviors based on the social
  environments in which we find ourselves

73
Development of Sociology

• Major Theoretical Perspectives

74
Functionalist Perspective

• Developed by Durkheim, Weber, Merton, and Parsons

75
Functionalist Perspective

• Developed by Durkheim, Weber, Merton, and Parsons
• Focuses on the ways social institutions
  (education, religion, politics, the family, etc)
  fill social needs - especially social solidarity

76
Functionalist Perspective

• Developed by Durkheim, Weber, Merton, and Parsons
• Focuses on the ways social institutions
  (education, religion, politics, the family, etc)
  fill social needs - especially social solidarity
• If a part of society does not meet a basic social
  need, that part will not be transferred to the
  next generation

77
Functionalist Perspective

• Developed by Durkheim, Weber, Merton, and Parsons
• Focuses on the ways social institutions
  (education, religion, politics, the family, etc)
  fill social needs - especially social solidarity
• If a part of society does not meet a basic social
  need, that part will not be transferred to the
  next generation
• There are no necessarily positive or negative
  associations made with regard to the institutions
  nor the needs of society

78
Functionalist Perspective

• Developed by Durkheim, Weber, Merton, and Parsons
• Focuses on the ways social institutions
  (education, religion, politics, the family, etc)
  fill social needs - especially social solidarity
• If a part of society does not meet a basic social
  need, that part will not be transferred to the
  next generation
• There are no necessarily positive or negative
  associations made with regard to the institutions
  nor the needs of society
• Ex - legalization of prostitution, gambling,
  alcohol, etc

79
Functionalist Perspective

• Developed by Durkheim, Weber, Merton, and Parsons
• Focuses on the ways social institutions
  (education, religion, politics, the family, etc)
  fill social needs - especially social solidarity
• If a part of society does not meet a basic social
  need, that part will not be transferred to the
  next generation
• There are no necessarily positive or negative
  associations made with regard to the institutions
  nor the needs of society
• Ex - legalization of prostitution, gambling,
  alcohol, etc
• However, there can be positively functional and
  dysfunctional associations made with regard to
  the effects of particular institutions or needs

80
Functionalist Perspective

• Distinctions are also made between manifest and
  latent functions

81
Functionalist Perspective

• Distinctions are also made between manifest and
  latent functions
• Manifest functions - intended, open functions of
  institutions

82
Functionalist Perspective

• Distinctions are also made between manifest and
  latent functions
• Manifest functions - intended, open functions of
  institutions
• Ex. - The mission of Agoura High School is to
  create a community of life-long learners who can
  think critically, communicate effectively, work
  both independently and collaboratively as
  contributing members of a global society.

83
Functionalist Perspective

• Distinctions are also made between manifest and
  latent functions
• Manifest functions - intended, open functions of
  institutions
• Ex. - The mission of Agoura High School is to
  create a community of life-long learners who can
  think critically, communicate effectively, work
  both independently and collaboratively as
  contributing members of a global society.
• Latent functions - unintended, hidden functions
  of institutions

84
Functionalist Perspective

• Distinctions are also made between manifest and
  latent functions
• Manifest functions - intended, open functions of
  institutions
• Ex. - The mission of Agoura High School is to
  create a community of life-long learners who can
  think critically, communicate effectively, work
  both independently and collaboratively as
  contributing members of a global society.
• Latent functions - unintended, hidden functions
  of institutions
• Ex. - Agoura High School.?

85
Do Schools Kill Creativity?Sir Ken Robinson
86
Conflict Perspective

• Developed by Marx

87
Conflict Perspective

• Developed by Marx
• Focuses on the inevitable struggles or tensions
  between social groups competing for scarce
  resources - especially access to social
  institutions

88
Conflict Perspective

• Developed by Marx
• Focuses on the inevitable struggles or tensions
  between social groups competing for scarce
  resources - especially access to social
  institutions
• Of particular concern, is how dominant groups,
  once in control of social institutions,
  manipulate these institutions to exploit the and
  oppress the competing group(s)

89
Conflict Perspective

• Developed by Marx
• Focuses on the inevitable struggles or tensions
  between social groups competing for scarce
  resources - especially access to social
  institutions
• Of particular concern, is how dominant groups,
  once in control of social institutions,
  manipulate these institutions to exploit the and
  oppress the competing group(s)
• Marx addressed the conflicts associated with
  economics

90
Conflict Perspective

• Developed by Marx
• Focuses on the inevitable struggles or tensions
  between social groups competing for scarce
  resources - especially access to social
  institutions
• Of particular concern, is how dominant groups,
  once in control of social institutions,
  manipulate these institutions to exploit the and
  oppress the competing group(s)
• Marx addressed the conflicts associated with
  economics
• Later sociologists adapted the conflict
  perspective to other areas

91
Conflict Perspective

• Developed by Marx
• Focuses on the inevitable struggles or tensions
  between social groups competing for scarce
  resources - especially access to social
  institutions
• Of particular concern, is how dominant groups,
  once in control of social institutions,
  manipulate these institutions to exploit the and
  oppress the competing group(s)
• Marx addressed the conflicts associated with
  economics
• Later sociologists adapted the conflict
  perspective to other areas
• WEB Du Bois (1868-1963) focused on aspects of race

92
Conflict Perspective

• Developed by Marx
• Focuses on the inevitable struggles or tensions
  between social groups competing for scarce
  resources - especially access to social
  institutions
• Of particular concern, is how dominant groups,
  once in control of social institutions,
  manipulate these institutions to exploit the and
  oppress the competing group(s)
• Marx addressed the conflicts associated with
  economics
• Later sociologists adapted the conflict
  perspective to other areas
• WEB Du Bois (1868-1963) focused on aspects of
  race
• Ida Wells-Barnett (1862-1931) focused on aspects
  of sex and gender

93
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

• Developed by Mead, Cooley, Goffman

94
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

• Developed by Mead, Cooley, Goffman
• Focuses on the everyday forms of social
  interaction between people as opposed to
  large-scale social behaviors

95
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

• Developed by Mead, Cooley, Goffman
• Focuses on the everyday forms of social
  interaction between people as opposed to
  large-scale social behaviors
• Argues humans live in a world of objects -
  material things, actions, other people,
  relationships, and symbols

96
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

• Developed by Mead, Cooley, Goffman
• Focuses on the everyday forms of social
  interaction between people as opposed to
  large-scale social behaviors
• Argues humans live in a world of objects -
  material things, actions, other people,
  relationships, and symbols
• The behaviors of humans are predicated on a
  common understanding and usage of these objects,
  especially symbols, in everyday interactions (ex
  - nonverbal communication)

97
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

• Developed by Mead, Cooley, Goffman
• Focuses on the everyday forms of social
  interaction between people as opposed to
  large-scale social behaviors
• Argues humans live in a world of objects -
  material things, actions, other people,
  relationships, and symbols
• The behaviors of humans are predicated on a
  common understanding and usage of these objects,
  especially symbols, in everyday interactions (ex
  - nonverbal communication)
• For an interaction to take place

98
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

• Developed by Mead, Cooley, Goffman
• Focuses on the everyday forms of social
  interaction between people as opposed to
  large-scale social behaviors
• Argues humans live in a world of objects -
  material things, actions, other people,
  relationships, and symbols
• The behaviors of humans are predicated on a
  common understanding and usage of these objects,
  especially symbols, in everyday interactions (ex
  - nonverbal communication)
• For an interaction to take place
• Each acting individual must determine the
  intention of the actions of the other

99
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

• Developed by Mead, Cooley, Goffman
• Focuses on the everyday forms of social
  interaction between people as opposed to
  large-scale social behaviors
• Argues humans live in a world of objects -
  material things, actions, other people,
  relationships, and symbols
• The behaviors of humans are predicated on a
  common understanding and usage of these objects,
  especially symbols, in everyday interactions (ex
  - nonverbal communication)
• For an interaction to take place
• Each acting individual must determine the
  intention of the actions of the other
• Each acting individual then decides on his/her
  own response on the basis of that intention

100
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

• Developed by Mead, Cooley, Goffman
• Focuses on the everyday forms of social
  interaction between people as opposed to
  large-scale social behaviors
• Argues humans live in a world of objects -
  material things, actions, other people,
  relationships, and symbols
• The behaviors of humans are predicated on a
  common understanding and usage of these objects,
  especially symbols, in everyday interactions (ex
  - nonverbal communication)
• For an interaction to take place
• Each acting individual must determine the
  intention of the actions of the other
• Each acting individual then decides on his/her
  own response on the basis of that intention
• The most commonly used symbol is speech

101
The Global Perspective

• Globalization refers to the worldwide integration
  of policies, cultures, social movements, etc
  through trade and the exchange of ideas.

102
The Global Perspective

• Globalization refers to the worldwide integration
  of policies, cultures, social movements, etc
  through trade and the exchange of ideas.
• Changes in education, the media, technology, and
  perspective have contributed to this phenomenon

103
The Global Perspective

• Globalization refers to the worldwide integration
  of policies, cultures, social movements, etc
  through trade and the exchange of ideas.
• Changes in education, the media, technology, and
  perspective have contributed to this phenomenon
• Ex - 9/11, Darfur, etc

104
Shift Happens