Language Typology

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Variation in Structure Form and Meaning
Anna Siewierska Dik Bakker Lancaster University

Language Typology
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Typology what is it?
What is language typology about?

Language Typology
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Typology what is it?
What is language typology about? 1. Looks at
'all' the languages of the world

Language Typology
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Typology what is it?
What is language typology about? 1. Looks at
'all' the languages of the world 2. Describes
differences and correspondences between them

Language Typology
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Typology what is it?
What is language typology about? 1. Looks at
'all' the languages of the world 2. Describes
differences and correspondences between
them 3. Systematizes these observations

Language Typology
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Typology what is it?
What is language typology about? 1. Looks at
'all' the languages of the world 2. Describes
differences and correspondences between
them 3. Systematizes these observations 4.
Tries to explain them (optional)

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Typology goal
What should be the overall impression?

Language Typology
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Typology goal
What should be the overall impression? -
Languages are (very) different on the outside

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Typology goal
What should be the overall impression? -
Languages are (very) different on the outside -
When you look a bit better, they have a lot in
common

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Typology goal
What should be the overall impression? -
Languages are (very) different on the outside -
When you look a bit better, they have a lot in
common - They make choices from restricted
options for largely the same categories

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Typology goal
What should be the overall impression? -
Languages are (very) different on the outside -
When you look a bit better, they have a lot in
common - They make choices from restricted
options for largely the same categories ?
They serve the same purpose human communication

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Typology goal
What should be the overall impression? -
Languages are (very) different on the outside -
When you look a bit better, they have a lot in
common - They make choices from restricted
options for largely the same categories ?
They serve the same purpose human
communication ? They should be learned in first
5-7 years

Language Typology
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Typology how?
How to proceed?

Language Typology
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Typology how?
How to proceed? - Start out from what they
already know about language

Language Typology
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Typology how?
How to proceed? - Start out from what they
already know about language - English spoken vs
written formal vs informal etc

Language Typology
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Typology how?
How to proceed? - Start out from what they
already know about language - English spoken vs
written formal vs informal etc - English
dialects (local!)

Language Typology
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Typology how?
How to proceed? - Start out from what they
already know about language - English spoken vs
written formal vs informal etc - English
dialects (local!) - Other languages known to the
particular group Welsh, Gaelic, Romany, Urdu,
Pashto, French,

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Typology how?
How to proceed? - Start out from what they
already know about language - English spoken vs
written formal vs informal etc - English
dialects (local!) - Other languages known to the
particular group Welsh, Gaelic, Romany, Urdu,
Pashto, French, - European languages

Language Typology
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Typology how?
How to proceed? - Start out from what they
already know about language - English spoken vs
written formal vs informal etc - English
dialects (local!) - Other languages known to the
particular group Welsh, Gaelic, Romany, Urdu,
Pashto, French, - European languages - Rest of
the world

Language Typology
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Typology how?
Further requirements

Language Typology
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Typology how?
Further requirements - No jargon but terms they
know

Language Typology
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Typology how?
Further requirements - No jargon but terms they
know - Interactive involve them

Language Typology
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Typology how?
Further requirements - No jargon but terms they
know - Interactive involve them - Clear,
simple examples from 'exotic' languages

Language Typology
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Typology how?
Further requirements - No jargon but terms they
know - Interactive involve them - Clear,
simple examples from 'exotic' languages - Sound
and Pictures

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Typology how?
Two forms of implementation of the course

Language Typology
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Typology how?
Two forms of implementation of the course 1.
Comprehensive series of 1 hour lessons lt 5
(min), 7, 9, , 15 (max) gt - General
introduction - 2 lessons per topic (max
6) L1 introduction to the topic L2
exercises and discussion - Closing lesson

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Typology how?
Two forms of implementation of the course 1.
Comprehensive series of 1 hour lessons lt 5
(min), 7, 9, , 15 (max) gt - General
introduction - 2 lessons per topic (max
6) L1 introduction to the topic L2
exercises and discussion - Closing lesson 2.
Compact 2 or 3 x 1 hour

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Versions
Version 1 Comprehensive

Language Typology
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Comprehensive
Maximum 15x 1 hour lesson

Language Typology
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Comprehensive
Maximum 15x 1 hour lesson I. What is Typology?

Language Typology
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Comprehensive
Maximum 15x 1 hour lesson I. What is
Typology? T1. Articles (2 x Intro exercise
Discussion)

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Comprehensive
Maximum 15x 1 hour lesson I. What is
Typology? T1. Articles (2 x Intro exercise
Discussion) T2. Word Order (I e D) T3.
Negation (I e D) T4. Passive (I e D) T5.
Pronominal subjects (I e D) T6. Subject
versus Object (I e D)

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Comprehensive
Maximum 15x 1 hour lesson I. What is
Typology? T1. Articles (2 x Intro exercise
Discussion) T2. Word Order (I e D) T3.
Negation (I e D) T4. Passive (I e D) T5.
Pronominal subjects (I e D) T6. Subject
versus Object (I e D) C. Concluding lesson

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Topics
I. INTRODUCTION

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Speaker of a language
Everyone in this room speaks ENGLISH
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Speaker of a language
Everyone in this room speaks ENGLISH Some
English is their only language ? mother tongue
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Speaker of a language
?
Everyone in this room speaks ENGLISH Some
English is their only language ? mother tongue
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Speaker of a language
Everyone in this room speaks ENGLISH Some
English is their only language ? mother
tongue Some English other language(s)
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Speaker of a language
Everyone in this room speaks ENGLISH Some
English is their only language ? mother
tongue Some English other language(s) gt
both are mother tongue ? multilingual
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Speaker of a language
Everyone in this room speaks ENGLISH Some
English is their only language ? mother
tongue Some English other language(s) gt
both are mother tongue ? multilingual
?
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Speaker of a language
Everyone in this room speaks ENGLISH Some
English is their only language ? mother
tongue Some English other language(s) gt
both are mother tongue ? multilingual gt second
language
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Speaker of a language

• Everyone in ENGLAND speaks ENGLISH
• Either as a first or a second language
• The same English everywhere in England

?
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English
England ENGLISH
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English
England Lancashire ENGLISH LANCASHIRE
DIALECT
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English
England Lancashire Lancaster
ENGLISH LANCASHIRE LANCASTER DIALECT
ACCENT
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Dialects
Dialects English Lancashire
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Dialects
Dialects English Lancashire That were me
brother what went to America
?
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Dialects
Dialects English Lancashire That were me
brother what went to America was my
who
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Dialects
Dialects English Lancashire That were me
brother what went to America was my
who
?
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Dialects
Dialects English Lancashire That were me
brother what went to America was my
who ? Standard English
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Dialects
English in the UK around 45 dialects
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Dialects
English in the UK around 45 dialects NORTH
Lancashire Cumbrian Geordie
Tyke
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Dialects
English in the UK around 45 dialects NORTH
Lancashire Cumbrian Geordie
Tyke MIDDLE Scouse Brummie
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Dialects
English in the UK around 45 dialects NORTH
Lancashire Cumbrian Geordie
Tyke MIDDLE Scouse Brummie SOUTH Co
ckney RP
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Dialects
English in the UK around 45 dialects NORTH
Lancashire Cumbrian Geordie
Tyke MIDDLE Scouse Brummie SOUTH Co
ckney Received Pronunciation ('BBC English')
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Dialects
English in the UK around 45 dialects NORTH
Lancashire Cumbria Geordie
Tyke MIDDLE Scouse Brummie SOUTH Coc
kney Received Pronunciation ('BBC English')
STANDARD Writing Education ...
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Dialects
English in the UK around 45 dialects NORTH
Lancashire Cumbria Geordie
Tyke MIDDLE Scouse Brummie SOUTH Coc
kney Received Pronunciation ('BBC English')
STANDARD Different, Not Better
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Western Europe
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Icelandic
Danish
Western Europe
Dutch
English
German
French
Spanish
Italian
Portuguese
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Icelandic
Danish
Western Europe
Dutch
English
German
French
Italian
Spanish
Portuguese
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Other languages
?
In Europe 150 languages How many in the world?
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Other languages
In Europe 150 languages How many in the
world? Currently spoken 7000 languages In
Europe around 2 only
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(No Transcript)
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(No Transcript)
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Languages
Languages Currently spoken 7,000 Extinct
(known) 500
?
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Languages
Languages Currently spoken 7,000 Extinct
(known) 500 Latin, Etruscan,
Hittite, Babylonian, Old
Egyptian,
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Languages
Languages Currently spoken 7,000 Extinct
(known) 500 Latin, Etruscan,
Hittite, Babylonian, Old
Egyptian, 1 more every 2 weeks
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Communalities
Reasons for languages to have something in
common

Language Typology
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Communalities
Reasons for languages to have something in
common - Inherited (language families)

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Communalities
Reasons for languages to have something in
common - Inherited Germanic
English Dutch German cow koe Kuh

Language Typology
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Communalities
Reasons for languages to have something in
common - Inherited Germanic
English Dutch German cow koe Kuh Ro
mance French Spanish Italian vache vaca
vacca

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Communalities
Reasons for languages to have something in
common - Inherited - Language contact

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Communalities
Reasons for languages to have something in
common - Inherited - Language
contact English pig sheep porc mut
ton French porc mouton

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Communalities
Reasons for languages to have something in
common - Inherited - Language
contact English pig sheep climb porc
mutton ascend French porc mouton ascendre

Language Typology
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Communalities
Reasons for languages to have something in
common - Inherited - Language
contact English pig sheep climb porc
mutton ascend French porc mouton ascendre
?

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Communalities
Reasons for languages to have something in
common - Inherited - Language contact -
Chance

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Communalities
Reasons for languages to have something in
common - Inherited - Language contact -
Chance 'Shut the door' 'Je t'adore' lt I
adore you gt

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Differences
Reasons for languages to be different

Language Typology
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Differences
Reasons for languages to be different - Other
choice for solution common problem

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Differences
Reasons for languages to be different - Other
choice for solution common problem Germanic
English Dutch German cow koe Kuh

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Differences
Reasons for languages to be different - Other
choice for solution common problem Germanic
English Dutch German cow koe Kuh Pl
ural cows koeien Kühe

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Differences

• Reasons for languages to be different
• - Other choice for solution common problem
• English We went into an antique-shop

Language Typology
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Differences

• Reasons for languages to be different
• - Other choice for solution common problem
• English We went into an antique-shop
• Turkish Bir antikaci-dan içeri girdik

Language Typology
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Differences

• Reasons for languages to be different
• - Other choice for solution common problem
• English We went into an antique-shop
• Turkish Bir antikaci-dan içeri girdik
• An antique-shop into

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Differences

• Reasons for languages to be different
• - Other choice for solution common problem
• English We went into an antique-shop
• Turkish Bir antikaci-dan içeri gir
• An antique-shop into went

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Differences

• Reasons for languages to be different
• - Other choice for solution common problem
• English We went into an antique-shop
• Turkish Bir antikaci-dan içeri girdik
• An antique-shop into went-we

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Differences
Reasons for languages to be different - Other
choice for solution common problem - Language
change

Language Typology
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Differences
Reasons for languages to be different - Other
choice for solution common problem - Language
change
Chaucer (1400) But now, sire, lat me se what
shal I seyn

Language Typology
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Differences
Reasons for languages to be different - Other
choice for solution common problem - Language
change
Chaucer (1400) But now, sire, lat me se what
shal I seyn 2000 But now, sir, let me see
what I shall be

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Differences
Reasons for languages to be different - Other
choice for solution common problem - Language
change
Chaucer (1400) But now, sire, lat me se what
shal I seyn 2000 But now, sir, let me see
what I shall be

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Differences
Reasons for languages to be different - Other
choice for solution common problem - Language
change
Chaucer (1400) But now, sire, lat me se what
shal I seyn 2000 But now, sir, let me see
what I shall be

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Differences
Reasons for languages to be different - Other
choice for solution common problem - Language
change
Chaucer (1400) But now, sire, lat me se what
shal I seyn (Dutch syn) 2000 But now, sir,
let me see what I shall be (Dutch zyn)

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Topics from typology
6 Topics from Typology

Language Typology
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Topics from typology
6 Topics from Typology - From 'easy' to
'complex'

Language Typology
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Topics from typology
6 Topics from Typology - From 'easy' to
'complex' - Related to each other e.g. Word
Order Passive Subject

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Topics from typology

• 6 Topics from Typology
• - From 'easy' to 'complex'
• - Related to each other
• e.g. Word Order Passive Subject
• First 'What is this in the English language,
• and what does it?'

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Topics from typology
6 Topics from Typology - From 'easy' to
'complex' - Related to each other e.g. Word
Order Passive Subject - First 'What is this
and what does it?' - Branch out to
dialects/languages-in-Britain

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Topics from typology
6 Topics from Typology - From 'easy' to
'complex' - Related to each other e.g. Word
Order Passive Subject - First 'What is this
and what does it? - Branch out to
dialects/languages-in-Britain - Further into
Europe

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Topics from typology
6 Topics from Typology - From 'easy' to
'complex' - Related to each other e.g. Word
Order Passive Subject - First 'What is this
and what does it?' - Branch out to
dialects/languages-in-Britain - Further into
Europe - Rest of the world

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Topics
T1. ARTICLES

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Articles
Article what is it in English? 'We went to see
the football match' vs 'We went to see a
football match'

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Articles
Article what is it in English, and what does
it? 'We went to see the football match' vs 'We
went to see a football match' ? Definite Hearer
supposed to know which one ? Indefinite Hearer
NOT supposed to know which one

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Articles
Article what is it in English, and what does
it? 'We went to see the football match' vs 'We
went to see a football match' ? Definite Hearer
supposed to know which one ? Indefinite Hearer
NOT supposed to know which one Definite also in
case there is only ONE The capital of
Lancashire is Preston

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Articles
About the function ? Seems to be important that
hearer knows what/which I am talking about,
to avoid misunderstandings 'This is a new
player, add her to the story' vs 'I am talking
about the one you know, so keep all information
about her available'

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Articles
About the function ? Seems to be important that
hearer knows what/which I am talking about,
to avoid misunderstandings 'This is a new
player, add her to the story' vs 'I am talking
about the one you know, so keep all information
about her available' Would all languages have
this device?
?

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Articles
About the form Variation with a language the
d? boy the dI other one a ? / ei
boy an ?n other one

Language Typology
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Articles
Local English dialect Variation across
dialects The same, but possible differences in
pronunciation and possibly also use Cf.
Lancashire dialect
Oh yes yes they were a primary school (.) Miss
Riley she were er (.) er in the d infants you
see and then you went up into the big school

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Articles
Scots Gaelic am balach the
boy But - balach a boy

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Articles
Conclusion lt first version gt Languages have a
definite article, form is different per
language, and even per dialect. Indefinite
article may but need not be present in a langage.
Absence then means 'indefinite'.

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Articles
Conclusion lt first version gt Languages have a
definite article, form is different per
language, and even per dialect. Indefinite
article may but need not be present in a langage.
Absence then means 'indefinite'. But based on
only 2 languages ...

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Articles
English the boy a boy

Language Typology
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Articles
English Dutch the boy de
jongen a boy een jongen

Language Typology
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Articles
English Dutch German the boy de
jongen der Junge a boy een jongen ein
Junge

Language Typology
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Articles
English Dutch German the boy de
jongen der Junge a boy een jongen ein
Junge

Language Typology
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Articles
English Dutch German the boy de
jongen der Junge a boy een jongen ein
Junge

Language Typology
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Articles
English Dutch German the boy de
jongen der Junge a boy een jongen ein
Junge
Different, but sound more or less the same

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Articles
English Dutch German the boy de
jongen der Junge a boy een jongen ein
Junge
Different, but sound more or less the same

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Articles
Scots Gaelic am balach the
boy balach a boy

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Articles
Scots Gaelic Welsh am balach the
boy y gwlad the country balach a
boy gwledydd a country

Language Typology
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Articles
Scots Gaelic Welsh am balach the
boy y gwlad the country balach a
boy gwledydd a country

Language Typology
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Articles
Scots Gaelic Welsh am balach the
boy y gwlad the country balach a
boy gwledydd a country

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Articles
Not learned much coincidence??? NO ? family
relationship English, Dutch, German, Danish,
Swedish, ... Sisters GERMANIC
languages Welsh, Scots Gaelic, Irish, Breton,
... Sisters CELTIC languages

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Western Europe 2009
Dutch
Danish
Gaelic
English
English
German
Welsh
Breton
124
Year 100 BC
125
Year 100 BC
Celtic
126
Year 100 BC
Celtic
Germanic
127
Year 100 BC
Celtic
Germanic
Latin
128
Year 0
Celtic
Germanic
Latin
129
Year 0
Celtic
Germanic
Latin
130
Year 400 AD
Celtic
Germanic
Latin
131
Year 400 AD
Celtic
Germanic
Latin
132
Year 900 AD
Scots Gaelic
Irish
Celtic
Germanic
Welsh
Latin
133
Year 900 AD
Scots Gaelic
English
Irish
Dutch
German
Celtic
Germanic
Welsh
Latin
134
Year 900 AD
Scots Gaelic
English
Irish
Dutch
German
Celtic
Germanic
Welsh
French
Romance
Spanish
Italian
135
Articles
Conclusion lt first version gt Languages have a
definite article, form is different per
language. Indefinite article may but need not be
present in a langage. Absence then means
'indefinite'.

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Articles
Conclusion lt second version gt Languages have a
definite article, form is different per
language. Indefinite article may but need not be
present in a langage. Absence then means
'indefinite'. Looking at languages from the same
family does not reveal much more about
definiteness since languages tend to inherit the
same system from their ancestor language. This
is still visible after many hundreds of years.

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Articles
Conclusion lt second version gt Languages have a
definite article, form is different per
language. Indefinite article may but need not be
present in a langage. Absence then means
'indefinite'. Looking at languages from the same
family does not reveal much more about
definiteness since languages tend to inherit the
same system from their ancestor language BUT
only two families out of many hundreds ...

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Articles
English (GERM) Spanish (ROM) Gaelic
(CELT) the boy el joven am
balach a boy un joven balach

Language Typology
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Articles
English (GERM) Spanish (ROM) Gaelic
(CELT) the boy el joven am
balach a boy un joven balach

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Articles
English (GERM) Spanish (ROM) Gaelic
(CELT) the boy el joven am
balach a boy un joven balach

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Articles
Conclusion lt second version NOTHING NEW
gt Languages have a definite article, form is
different per language. Indefinite article may
but need not be present in a langage. Absence
then means 'indefinite'. Looking at languages
from the same family does not reveal much more
about definiteness since languages tend to
inherit the same system from their ancestor
language BUT all these languages in close
contact (Western Europe)

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(No Transcript)
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SLAVIC LANGUAGES Russian Polish Czech Croat
...
144
Articles
English Polish the
boy chlopiec a boy chlopiec

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Articles
English Polish the
boy chlopiec a boy chlopiec

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Articles
English Polish the
boy chlopiec a boy chlopiec
N.B. Polish speakers with English as a second
language often 'forget' the article

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Articles
Conclusion lt third version gt Languages may or
may not have a definite article. If they have a
definite article, they may also have
an indefinite article. The system seems to be
inherited from the ancestor language, because
sister languages tend to have the same system.

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Articles
Language Types (OBSERVED)

NO ARTICLES Polish (SLAV)
ARTICLES
ONLY DEFINITE Welsh (CELT)
DEFINITE INDEFINITE English (GERM) Spanish
(ROM)

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Articles
Language Types (OBSERVED)

NO ARTICLES
ARTICLES
ONLY DEFINITE
DEFINITE INDEFINITE
Universal Rule (???) Only indefinite article
when also definite

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Articles
Language Types (LOGICAL)

NO ARTICLES
ARTICLES
ONLY DEFINITE
DEFINITE INDEFINITE
ONLY INDEFINITE

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Articles
Universal Rule (???) Only indefinite article
when also definite

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Articles
Universal Rule (???) Only indefinite article
when also definite TEST on more
languages GERM/CELT/ROM/SLAV related ?
European Super Family

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Articles
Universal Rule (???) Only indefinite article
when also definite TEST on more
languages GERM/CELT/ROM/SLAV related ?
European Super Family Ideally all languages of
the world (7000) NOT AVAILABLE

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Articles
Universal Rule (???) Only indefinite article
when also definite TEST on more
languages GERM/CELT/ROM/SLAV related ?
European Super Family Ideally all languages of
the world (7000) NOT AVAILABLE Minimally one
language per family (250 400) lt SAMPLE gt

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WALS
No articles (188) 44 Definite and Indefinite
article (133) 30 Only Definite article
(76) 17 56 Only Indefinite
article (41) 9
N 438
156
Articles
English Gaelic Turkish Polish
the boy an balach oglan chlopiec
a boy balach bir oglan chlopiec
Counter example to (potential) rule

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Articles
Conclusion lt fourth version definitive (???)
gt Slightly more than half of the languages have
articles. More than half of these have both a
definite and an indefinite article Of those that
have only one type, twice as many have a definite
article than an indefinite one

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Articles
Language Types (LOGICAL OBSERVED)

NO ARTICLES
ARTICLES
ONLY DEFINITE
DEFINITE INDEFINITE
ONLY INDEFINITE
Right Sample

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Articles
Polish English Gaelic Turkish chlopiec
the boy am balach oglan chlopiec a
boy balach bir oglan 44 gt 30 gt
17 gt 9 Articles NOT necessary often clear
in context

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Articles
Polish English Gaelic Turkish chlopiec
the boy am balach oglan chlopiec a
boy balach bir oglan 44 gt 30 gt
17 gt 9 Articles NOT necessary often clear
in context Alternatives Demonstrative (THIS,
THAT) Numeral (ONE) Possessive (MY, HIS)
Adjctive (NEW, OTHER, CLOSE, BIG)

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Articles
Polish English Gaelic Turkish chlopiec
the boy am balach oglan chlopiec a
boy balach bir oglan 44 gt 30 gt
17 gt 9 Articles NOT necessary often clear
in context Alternatives Demonstrative (THIS,
THAT) Numeral (ONE)
Historical Source

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Articles
Polish English Gaelic Turkish chlopiec
the boy am balach oglan chlopiec a
boy balach bir oglan 44 gt 30
2x 17 2x 9 If present, why this
distribution?

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Articles
Polish English Gaelic Turkish chlopiec
the boy am balach oglan chlopiec a
boy balach bir oglan 44 gt 30
2x 17 2x 9 If present, why this
distribution? Two different forms clearer
contrast than one vs none Most important
difference ? one is enough ? economical Definite
article more often stressed than indefinite

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Articles
Articles help to identify a referent (known to
hearer or not)

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Articles
Articles help to identify a referent (known to
hearer or not) Two main types languages with
(I) and without articles (II) almost equally
common ( not a universal category)

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Articles
Articles help to identify a referent (known to
hearer or not) Two main types languages with
(I) and without articles (II) almost equally
common ( not a universal category) Three
subtypes of (I) a. both finite and indefinite
article present b. only definite article c. only
indefinite article

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Topics
T2. WORD ORDER

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Word Order
Possibilities 1. Alternative orders in the noun
phrase, including constraints on combinations
(DefN, IndefN, DemN, NumN, AN)

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Demonstrative Noun Order

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Numeral Noun Order

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Word Order
Possibilities 1. Alternative orders in the noun
phrase, including constraints on combinations
(DefN, IndefN, DemN, NumN, AN)

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Word Order
Possibilities 1. Alternative orders in the noun
phrase, including constraints on combinations
(DefN, IndefN, DemN, NumN, AN) 2. Main clause
order (S / O / V) - simple definition of
subject and object - variation in English
dialects - orders in other languages - basic
order vs alternatives plus motivation

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Main Clause Order

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Topics
T3. NEGATION

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Topics
T4. PASSIVE

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Topics
T5. PRONOMINAL SUBJECTS

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Topics
T6. SUBJECTS VS OBJECTS

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Topics
C. CONCLUDING LESSON

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Conclusion
Resume over all topics, relating them to each
other

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Conclusion
Resume over all topics, relating them to each
other On the basis of the original
statements - Languages are (very) different on
the outside - When you look a bit better, they
have a lot in common - They make choices from
restricted options for largely the same
categories

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Conclusion
Resume over all topics, relating them to each
other On the basis of the original
statements - Languages are (very) different on
the outside - When you look a bit better, they
have a lot in common - They make choices from
restricted options for largely the same
categories - What would be another interesting
topic to look at?
?

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Topics
Version 2 Compact

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Compact
One 2 - 3 hour version, possibly 2 - 3 x 1 hour

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Compact
One 2 - 3 hour version 1. What is typology?

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Compact
One 2 - 3 hour version 1. What is typology? 2.
Languages of the world areas and families

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Compact
One 2 - 3 hour version 1. What is typology? 2.
Languages of the world areas and families 3.
One or more (simple) phenomena (Article? Word
Order?)

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Compact
One 2 - 3 hour version 1. What is typology? 2.
Languages of the world areas and families 3.
One or more (simple) phenomena (Article? Word
Order?) 4. Relations between phenomena (only
examples)

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Compact
One 2 - 3 hour version 1. What is typology? 2.
Languages of the world areas and families 3.
One or more (simple) phenomena (Article? Word
Order?) 4. Relations between phenomena (only
examples) 5. Conclusion

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Compact
One 2 - 3 hour version 1. What is typology? 2.
areas and families 3. One (simple)
phenomenon 4. Relations 5. Conclusion
Very Compact Version Probably better to make it
into General introduction to Languages of the
World

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?
Language Typology