Prospective Memory

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Prospective Memory

• Level H MEMORY

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Focus of Lecture

• Define prospective memory
• Similarities and differences between prospective
  retrospective memory
• Importance in everyday life
• The taxonomy of prospective tasks
• Methodological Approaches
• Applying Prospective memory

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Prospective Vs Retrospective Memory

• Research conducted on Retrospective memory has
  led to proposal that memory is not a Unitary
  construct.
• Retrospective memory appears to be composed of
  several systems or processes.
• These operate differentially depending upon the
  task demands.
• Accordingly, several types of memory

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TYPES OF MEMORY

• Retrospective memory is a Label.
• Remembering info from past is dominant but not
  defining feature.

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Defining Prospective Memory

• To function efficiently in everyday life we
  require more than recall of past information.
• A large part of our daily life is dedicated to
  making and carrying out plans for the future.
• Prospective memory is
• the ability to perform an action at an
  appropriate time in the future

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Distinguishing features of PM

• Distinguishing feature is time.
• Time may be specific or general.
• It refers to the contexts in which the action
  needs to be performed.
• e.g. when or after or before
• Prospective memory is also known as
• Memory for delayed Intentions.
• Ellis (1996)
• This encapsulates idea of holding an intention in
  mind until appropriate time to execute it occurs.

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Prospective Vs Retrospective memory

• Prospective memory not entirely distinct from
  retrospective memory.
• Retrospective memory is required to retrieve the
  content of action
• Prospective memory is also not a
  One-dimensional construct.
• Some researchers argue distinction false one
  (Crowder, 1996 Roediger,1996)

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Differences
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Taxonomy of Prospective Tasks Time-Based

• Defining feature of Prospective memory is
  performing the action at the correct time.
• Specific
• Requires action at precise time e.g. Removing a
  cake from the oven, taking medication, sending a
  birthday card.
• Mistakes illustrate importance of timing. e.g.
  removing cake to early or late results in
  inedible mess.
• General
• Action required at less specific time e.g. going
  on holiday sometime during summer

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Taxonomy of Prospective Tasks Event-Based

• Refer to the contexts in which it is appropriate
  to perform the action.
• They are external situations that act as prompts
  for the intention
• People e.g. pass a telephone message to a
  housemate when we next see him or her.
• Location e.g. pick up a brochure when were
  next in town.
• Event Any target that requires the execution of
  the action. e.g. water plant when soil is dry.
• Target may be in any modality.

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Type of Task

• Both event and time based tasks may be
  categorised according to the frequency of
  performance.
• Habitual Tasks
• Prospective tasks that are repeated on a regular
  basis.
• For example routine behaviour such as taking the
  temperature or blood pressure of a patient,
  brushing teeth, or attending a lecture every
  Monday.

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Type of Task

• Episodic
• Prospective tasks that are more sporadic in
  nature and not performed as part of a distinct
  routine.
• For example a dental check-up, or buying shampoo
  when needed.

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Methodological Approaches

• Prospective memory is particularly relevant in
  everyday life.
• Three main approaches
• Self Report
• Naturalistic Experiments
• Laboratory experiments
• Each has strengths weaknesses

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Self-Report

• Relies on individuals own observations of
  prospective memory.
• Record is made of things that are remembered as
  well as forgotten.
• Generally records observations over a length of
  time.

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Examples of Self Report

• Questionnaires where frequency of such lapses is
  recorded on a likert Scale.
• Formal interviews record type of reminders
  individual uses.
• Diary or journal used to record circumstances
  surrounding errors.

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Advantages of Self Report

• Simple way of measuring frequency of the
  occurrence of prospective memory failures in real
  life.
• Based on direct, first hand experience
• Observations can be made over a variety of
  different tasks
• Observations can be made over longer period than
  laboratory exp..
• Reliability tends to be high

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Disadvantages of self report

• Validity may be low. Individuals report may not
  be accurate
• Metamemory paradox Individuals who commit most
  errors are least likely to report them.
• Individual variation in opportunity to commit
  errors.
• Likert Scales can be ambiguous
• Response Bias may exist

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Naturalistic Experiments

• Experiments designed to be representative of real
  life experiences.
• Allows experimenter to vary factors and measure
  the outcome.
• Compromise between making task close to real life
  and retaining enough control over variables to
  allow conclusions to be drawn

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Examples of Naturalistic experiments

• Typically include setting participant a specific
  task and measuring outcome.
• Field experiments
• Participant is required to carry out an action at
  home, but outcome measured by the experimenter.
• For example posting a card to, or telephoning
  the experimenter at a designated time, (Meacham
  Singer 1978 Moscovitch, 1982)

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Laboratory-based Naturalistic Experiments
(Quasi-experimental)

• These experiments adopt a more rigorous approach
  than the field studies
• In more controlled conditions than at home, the
  experimenter is able to directly observe and
  manipulate more variables.
• The materials or tasks remain based on everyday
  situations. For example baking a cake, (Ceci
  Brofenbremmer, 1985), or watching a film and
  making a note whenever a person with a beard was
  shown , (Maylor,19931996)

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Clinical Interview

• Prospective memory tasks may also be incorporated
  into a clinical interview used for assessing the
  level of cognitive impairment of the individual.
• For example the Rivermead Behavioural memory Test
  (RMBT)
• Here the participant is assigned a prospective
  task (e.g. asking for the return of a belonging)
  and performance is recorded during the interview.

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Advantages of naturalistic Approaches

• Provide more objective evidence of prospective
  memory failures than self report.
• Retain more ecological validity than more
  strictly controlled laboratory experiments.
• Ecological validity refers to the degree to which
  an experiment is based on real life situations,
  in real environments and has real applications.
  (Neisser 1978)
• Provide insight into everyday prospective
  function of different populations, (e.g. Elderly,
  Brain injured)
• Findings may be applied to real world situations

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Disadvantages

• Sacrifice of experimental control
• Replication difficult
• Individual differences in some tasks
• Demand characteristics
• Performance anxiety of participants

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Experimental method

• This allows the experimenter to systematically
  control variables of the experiment.
• Typically, prospective experiments involve
  presenting information on screen and having the
  participant respond by pressing a key. (e.g.
  Einstein McDaniel, 1996).

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Advantages

• Allows independent manipulation of variables.
• Approach is important for developing theories of
  prospective memory.
• Allows extraneous variables to be excluded.
• Firmer conclusions may be drawn.

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Disadvantages

• Lack of ecological validity difficult to
  generalise findings to real world
• Low number of outcomes measured in short time.
  (floor or ceiling effects)
• Limited number of variables manipulated in one
  experiment.
• Limited understanding of other types of
  prospective memory

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Applying Prospective memory

• Prevalent in everyday life.
• Failures can be inconvenience
• Poor prospective memory can impair individuals
  ability to to live independently.
• Particularly for cognitively impaired groups
  (e.g. brain injured, persons with dementia)
• Development of strategies have improved
  prospective memory.

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Examples of strategies

• External
• Diaries, journals, reminders. Variations of
  electronic organisers have also demonstrated
  success in the rehabilitation of brain injured
  patients, (e.g. Broek et al 2000)
• Internal
• Memory strategies centred on organising
  information internal rehearsal. Success for
  improving PM in elderly.(Villa Abeles,2000)

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References

• Broek, M. D. vanden, Dwnes, J., Johnson, Z.,
  Dayus, B. Hilton, N. (2000). Evaluation of an
  electronic memory aid in the neuropsychological
  rehabilitation of prospective memory deficits.
  Brain Injury, 14, 455-462.
• Baddeley, A.D. Wilkins, A.J. (1984). Taking
  memory out of the laboratory. In J.E. Harris
  P.E. Morris, (Eds) Everyday memory, actions and
  absentmindedness. London Academic Press.
• Ceci, S.J. Brofenbrenner,U.(1985). Dont
  forget to take the cupcakes out of the oven
  Prospective memory, strategic time-monitoring and
  context. Child development, 56, 152-164.
• Cohen, G.(1989). Memory in the real world.
  Hillsdale, NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Einstein,G. O. McDaniel, M.A. (1990). Normal
  Aging and prospective memory. Journal of
  Experimental Psychology Learning, memory and
  Cognition, 16 717-726.
• Ellis, J. (1996). Prospective memory and the
  realisation of delayed intentions. In M.
  Brandimonte, G.O. Einstein M.A. McDaniel (Eds),
  Prospective memory Theory and Applications, NJ
  Lawrence Erlaum Associates.

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• Kim, H. J., Burke, D.T., Dowds, M., Boon,
  K.A.(2000). Electronic Aids for outpatient brain
  injury Follow-up findings. Brain Injury, 14
  187-196.
• Maylor, E.A. (1993). Aging and forgetting in
  prospective and retrospective memory tasks.
  Psychology and Aging, 8, 420-428.
• Meacham, J.A. Singer, J. (1977). Incentive in
  prospective remembering. Journal of Psychology,
  97, 191-197.
• Moscovitch,M. (1982). A neuropsychological
  approach to perception and memory in normal and
  pathological aging. In F.I.M. Craik S. Trehub
  (Eds), Advances in the study of communication and
  affect, Vol 8. Aging and Cognitive processes. New
  Yok Plenum Press.
• Neisser, U. (1978). Memory What are the
  important questions? In M.M. Grunberg, P.E.
  Morris., R.N. Sykes (Eds), Practical Aspects of
  Memory. London Academic Press
• Villa, K. Abeles, N. (2000). Broad Spectrum
  Intervention and the remediation of Prospective
  memory declines in the able elderly. Aging
  mental Health. 4, 21-29.
• Wilson, B. Baddeley,, A.D., Hutchins, H.(1984).
  The Rivermead behavioural memory test. Rivermead
  Technical Report. 84/1.