Gendering the phobia

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Gendering the phobia
Male-male sexualities, stigma, discrimination and
violence in South Asia
Homophobia and discrimination March 31, 2009
Global Symposium on Engaging Men and Boys in
Gender Equality Rio de Janeiro March 30 April
3, 2009
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Naz Foundation International Afghanistan,
Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri
Lanka Providing technical assistance, support
and mentoring to develop MSM community-based
organisations providing HIV and sexual health
services in South Asia
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• A caveat
• The work of Naz Foundation International is
  exclusively focusing on the sexual health rights
  of males who have sex with males towards
  achieving Universal Access to HIV prevention,
  treatment, care and support services.
• This presentation focuses on issues arising from
  this.

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MSM This is usually an acronym for Men Who Have
Sex with Men. However, the term men can be
problematic within the context of different
cultural definitions of Man, Manliness, and
Manhood. In the context of South Asia, NFI uses
MSM to mean Males Who Have Sex with Males.  
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Contexts Religions Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism,
Christianity Colonialism, conflict Socio-cultura
l value systems that involve compulsory marriage,
adulthood defined by social obligations, shame
instead of guilt, gender segregation, male
bonding, male honour,
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Religious belief, denial, ignorance, illegality,
myths, fears, violence, abuse, exclusion, and
invisibility create a discourse that denies much
of male-to-male sexual behaviours in society. At
the same time, current discourses on sexual
identity, sexual orientation, and sexual
minorities, also increases the invisibility of
much male-to-male sex.
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The problem with naming! First gay 'marriage' in
Pakistan A gay couple have become the first to
get "married" in Pakistan, according to reports
from the region.Witnesses said a 42-year-old
Afghan refugee held a marriage ceremony with a
local tribesman of 16 in the remote Khyber region
bordering Afghanistan.. BBC news 5 October
2005
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A binary world
Mind Body Man Woman Male Female Mascul
ine Feminine Young Old Heterosexual Homos
exual Straight Gay
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A trinary world
South Asia Man Not-man Woman
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Male-male sexual frameworks

• Gendered framework
• Male to male desire based on feminised gendered
  roles
• and identification - sexual acts based on gender
  roles,
• i.e. man/not-man

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Why do men have sex with men? This is not
normal. We kothis/zenana are here for them. I
dont mind if my girya beats me up. It only shows
how manly and powerful he is. When my parik
(husband) beats me, I feel as helpless as a
woman. Since I want to be a woman, it actually
makes me feel good.
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Discharge framework Male to male sexual
behaviours arising from immediate access,
opportunity, and body heat. They
involve males/boys/men from the general male
population
Also involves males in all-male institutions
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Friendship - Dost Opportunistic - body heat,
mutual desire and friendship Doing masti
Across the region
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Beardless boys Older men form relationships with
adolescent males - usually between 12 and 17
years before these males can grow
beards. Beardless boys Beautiful boys Dancing
boys Such boys are not men
Primarily in Afghanistan and NWFP in Pakistan,
but also exists to some extent across the region
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Emergent gay framework Male to male desire framed
by sexual orientation. Primarily used by middle
and upper classes. Such gay identified men
usually seek other gay identified men as sex
partners.
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Identities and/or behaviour
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Many males from the general male population will
also access feminised-identified males or
beardless boys for anal/oral sex . These males
do not see themselves as homosexuals, or even
their behaviour as homosexual, since they take
on the manly penetrating role in male to male
sex. Nor do their partners see themselves as
homosexuals because they either see themselves as
not men, or they are involved in play - not
sex.
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Genderphobia
A penetrative sexuality along with a gendered
construction of male-male sex roles leading to
high levels of discrimination, abuse, violence
and rape of feminised males and boys.
In a gendered framework of male-to-male sex, the
issue of feminisation, as much as that of sexual
receptivity practice, itself leads to violence,
abuse and harassment.
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Key issues

• Sexual diversity and polymorphous sexual
  behaviours
• A primary gendered framework of male-to-male
  sexual behaviours
• Many MSM perceive themselves as a part of a
  real man/not-man binary
• Marriage as socially compulsory
• Early sexual debut often arising from gendered
  performativity
• Gender segregation and social control of females
• Often male-to-male sex perceived within a context
  of play - not sex

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Stigma and violence
From a study conducted in six cities in India and
Bangladesh amongst self-identified feminised
males Anecdotal evidence from Pakistan and Nepal
indicates similar data.
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Stigma and violence

• 42 reported that they had been sexually
  assaulted or raped by policemen.
• 60 reported sexual assault or rape by goondas.
• 75 of those reporting being sexually assaulted
  or raped by either policemen or goondas, stated
  that this occurred because they were effeminate.
• 70 of respondents reported facing harassment
  from police, ranging from extortion, blackmail,
  beatings, restrictions to movement, and
  disclosure of sexual practices to goondas and
  family members.

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Stigma and violence

• 36 of respondents in Dhaka reported that they
  faced harassment from religious leaders, only 8
  in Indian cities reported such harassment.
• 28 of respondents reported that they have
  either thought of suicide or tried to commit
  suicide at some point in their lives.

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Stigma and violence

• Education, poverty, vulnerability to violence
• 50 stated that fellow students or teachers
  harassed them in school or college because they
  were effeminate, drastically effecting their
  education and employment opportunities.
• 70 stated that the fact that they had sex with
  other males has had negative impact on their
  economic prospects.
• 45 respondents stated that their effeminacy had
  affected their work opportunities.
• 82 respondents stated that if they were not
  kothis, they would have better job opportunities.

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Because feminised males do not live up to the
expected normative standards of masculine
behaviour, this leads to the notion that those
who are feminised can be exploited and abused,
that being feminised somehow weakens the person,
a notion that is often internalised by kothis
themselves. Accepted notions around masculinity
and effeminacy are therefore one of the major
factors that lead to disempowerment and opens
perceived feminised males to abuse and assault
and to a denial of service provision. It should
be noted that gay-identified men are also
perceived as feminised males
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The legal framework
Section 377 of the Bangladesh/Indian/Pakistan
Penal Codes Anyone who voluntarily has carnal
intercourse against the order of nature with man,
women or animal, shall be punished with
imprisonment of either description which may
extend to life, or to ten years and shall also be
liable to a fine. Explanation Penetration is
sufficient to constitute the offence as described
in this section.
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A similar law in Sri Lanka was amended to
specifically make it gender neutral Section
365a. The Afghanistan Penal Code has a specific
Article on pederasty seen as sodomy this
can be treated as subservient to the
Sharia. While Nepalese laws did not explicitly
criminalise homosexuality, unnatural sex act
currently carries a prison tem of up to a year.
However, the Nepal Supreme Court ruled in
December 21 2007 that the rights of sexual
minorities under the concept of a third gender
need to be respected, and that all laws which
impact on these rights need amendment.
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The social and religious framework
The threat of exposure in a culture where shame
is the dominant mode of social control creates
an environment of blackmail, suicide and
coercive sex with no redress. Under Sharia law,
male-male sex is also punishable by death.
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Addressing the challenge

• Review, amendment, or repeal of prohibitive and
  discrminatory laws
• Sensitisation of law enforcement agencies, the
  judiciary and the legal community
• Male-on-male rape a specific offence
• Public awareness and education of differing
  sexualities
• A rights-based approach to sexual health and
  well-being
• Increasing understanding and education of
  genders, masculinities, femininities and
  sexualities
• Informed sex and sexualities education
• Community development and mobilising
• Access to social justice and equity
• Social inclusion

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But..
Unless we also address the social construction of
penetrative masculinity that allows genderphobia
be a part of this construction and which enables
violence against feminised males (and females)
to be socially permissible - in a society that
socially excludes such males - and says they are
less than human, there will always be a
difference between policy and implementation.
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Thank you for your attention