The Journey So Far 19082008

1
The Journey So Far 1908-2008 Tony
Fahey Presentation for Barnardos Tomorrows
Child Conference Ballsbridge Court Hotel,
Dublin 5-6 November 2008
Scoil an Léinn Shóisialta Fheidhmeannaigh UCD
UCD School of Applied Social Studies
2
Context

• Children Act 1908
• Focused on children at the margins
• Those in trouble with the law
• Those experiencing neglect/abuse
• but reflected general trends in thinking about
  the nature of childhood (the meaning of
  childhood)
• that is, in adults thinking about the nature
  of childhood (childs voice did not emerge
  until later)
• British legislation, reflecting British
  international trends
• Situation in Ireland different in many ways
• but also participated in broader international
  movements
• Question what were the major trends shaping/
  reflecting the changed meaning of childhood in
  20th century?
• In western countries generally?
• and in Ireland?

3
Four trends

• The mortality transition
• The fertility transition
• Expansion of mass schooling
• Family circumstances of children

4
The mortality transition

• From high, unstable death rates to low, stable
  death rates
• Infant mortality in Europe
• 18th century 150-300 infant deaths per 1,000
  births
• Up to 500 deaths by age 20
• Two for one rule two births required to
  produce one adult
• 19th century slow, unsteady improvements in
  infant child survival
• By 1900, infant mortality often down to 100 per
  1,000 births
• But with wide variations by place and social
  position (from 70 to 150 in across districts in
  Dublin)
• 20th century infant and childhood mortality
  almost eliminated
• By 2000, infant mortality often below 5 per 1000
  live births
• Smaller variations by place and social position
• Survival to age 20 close to or exceeding 99
• One for one rule almost applies

5
Infant mortality rates (per 1,000 births) in
selected European countries, 1720-1920
Source Jacques Vallin Mortality in Europe from
1720 to 1914 Long-term trends and changes in
patterns by age and sex, pp. 38-67 in R.
Schofield, D. Reher A. Bideau, The Decline of
Mortality in Europe, Clarendon Press, Oxford,
1991.
6
Child deaths by week in Birmingham, 1911
Source Robert Woods Public health and public
hygiene The urban environment in late 19th and
early 20th centuries, pp. 233-247 in R.
Schofield, D. Reher A. Bideau, The Decline of
Mortality in Europe, Clarendon Press, Oxford,
1991.
7
Infant deaths per 1000 live births, 1970-2005
8
The fertility transition

• Two aspects
• Decline in fertility rates
• from moderately high (4-6 children per woman)
• to low (2-4 children)
• and then very low fertility rates (1-2 children)
• Change in methods of fertility limitation
• From restricted marriage
• to sexual restraint within marriage
• to artificial contraception
• Fertility transition began almost simultaneously
  throughout Europe in 1880s-early 1900s
• Progressed in near uniform way to present

9
Fertility limitation in Europe to late 19th
century restrictions in access to marriage

• The European marriage pattern
• Found from early medieval period to late 19th
  century
• Occurred only in western Europe
• In Ireland, survived to mid-20th century
• Three key features
• Women marry at late average age (22-28 yrs)
• High proportion of women never marry (usually
  10-20)
• Social controls on sexual activity outside of
  marriage (varied by time place controls
  generally weakened in 19th c)
• Patterns elsewhere in world
• Average female marriage age always below 22,
  usually below 20
• Nearly all women marry rarely more than 3-4
  remain single
• Sex before marriage/births outside marriage
  hardly occur

10
Average age of female marriage in selected
countries, W E Europe Asia c. 1900
Estimate for cohort born 1861
Median Source pp. 145, 216 in G. Therborn,
Between Sex and Power. Family in the World
1900-2000. London, Routledge (2004)
11
Percentage of female population never married by
age 45-49 in selected countries, W E Europe
Asia c. 1900
Age-group 45-54 Source pp. 145, 216 in G.
Therborn, Between Sex and Power. Family in the
World 1900-2000. London, Routledge (2004)
12
Decline in marital fertility in selected European
countries, 1880s-1980s(Ig index actual marital
fertility as a proportion of maximum possible)
In 1880s, the Ig marital fertility index was in
the region of 0.7 for most countries in Europe.
By the 1930s, it was in the range 0.3 to 0.5.
1940s 1950s recovery or slower decline in
marital fertility. 1960s general decline
resumes. Two exceptional cases France Marital
fertility already low by 1850. By 1930s/1940s,
other countries had fallen to French
levels. Ireland Normal marital fertility
levels in late 19th c, but later and slower
decline in 20th c. Did not re-converge on rest of
Europe until 1980s.
13
Social significance of decline in marital
fertility

• Change in attitudes towards and valuation of
  children?
• Preference for child quality over child quantity
  (more material emotional investment per child
  rather than more children)?
• Impact of falling infant childhood mortality?
• Children become more costly (extended education,
  restrictions on child labour)
• Intergenerational flow of resources changes
  (historically -- upwards from children to
  parents in 20th century downwards from parents
  to children)
• Emergence of old age pensions, care institutions
  for older people
• Change in relationship between husbands wives?
• Fertility limitation within marriage required
  husbands cooperation (sexual abstinence, coitus
  interruptus)
• Stronger voice for wives in deciding family size?
• Rise of companionate marriage
• Rising educational levels

14
Total fertility rates in Ireland, USA and EU-15,
1960-2007
Ireland
USA
EU-15
15
Growth of mass schooling

• Emerged in all western countries in 19th century
• Initial focus on elementary schooling three Rs
  plus building of national identity plus
  religious instruction
• Accompanied by laws restricting child labour
• and compulsory school attendance regulations
• In Ireland, national primary school system
  founded in 1831
• Well developed but with incomplete participation
  by early 20th century
• Usual minimum role of the state
• Define curriculum
• Define minimum schooling
• Enforce minimum

16
Growth of mass schooling

• Evolved in all western countries in late 19c.
• Initially resisted on privacy grounds
• Universal by 1930s
• Accompanied by child labour laws
• But truancy extended beyond child labour issues
• Partly driven by education interest groups
• Penal approach mainly towards children
• In Ireland School Attendance Act 1926
• Strongly enforced up to late 1950s

17
Changes since 1950s

• Truancy redefined from moral to welfare terms
• Enticement replaces compulsion
• Support replaces punishment
• Strengthening concept of childrens rights
• Changing understanding of childrens nature
• From child as threat / danger
• to child as positive potential with individual
  character rights

18
Changing family circumstances of childrenNumber
of births by birth order in Ireland, 1960-2007
Thousands of births
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
19
Percentage of births by birth order, 1960 and 2007
20
Births outside marriage 1960-2007number and
of all births
21
Percentage of children by age-group living with
lone parents, 1981 and 2006
22
Some conclusions

• Dramatic improvement in most aspects of
  childrens lives in 20th century
• Healthier
• Safer
• More valued
• More respected
• Uncertainties remain as to what is best for
  children
• and some children continue to be poorly
  provided for
• Some illustrations of present-day views
  anxieties about children (from Barndardos survey
  of children parents 2007) .