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Title: Intelligence Testing


1
Intelligence Testing
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(No Transcript)
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A brief history of intelligence
  • The concept of 'intelligence' is relatively new,
    unknown a century ago, though it comes from older
    Latin roots
  • inter between, within legere to bring
    together, gather, pick out, choose, catch up,
    catch with the eye, read intellegere to see
    into, perceive, understand
  • Francis Galton revived the term in the late 19th
    century, arguing for its innateness

4
A brief history of intelligence
  • Some objected to the innateness bias, and
    suggested the term be replaced with 'general
    scholastic ability' or 'general educational
    ability'
  • However, this did not catch on most theorists
    today posit a construct of intelligence that is
    independent of education

5
Defining intelligence
  • Binet (1916) defined it as the capacity to judge
    well, to reason well, and to comprehend well
  • Terman (1916) defined it as the capacity to form
    concepts and grasp their significance
  • Pintner (1921) defined it as the ability of an
    individual to adapt well to new situations in
    life
  • Thorndike (1921) defined it as the power of good
    responses from the point of view of truth or fact
  • Thurstone (1921) defined it as the capacity to
    inhibit instinctive response, imagine a different
    response, and realize the response modification
    into behavior

6
Defining intelligence
  • Spearman (1923) defined it as a general ability
    involving mainly the ability to see relations and
    correlates
  • Wechlser (1939) defined it as the global capacity
    of an individual to act purposefully, think
    rationally, and deal effectively with the
    environment
  • Piaget (1972) defined it as referring to the
    superior forms of organization or equilibrium of
    cognitive structuring used for adaptation to the
    to the physical and social environment
  • Sternberg (1985) defined it as the mental
    capacity to automatize information processing and
    to emit contextually appropriate behavior in
    response to novelty
  • Gardner (1986) defined it as the ability to solve
    problems or fashion products valued within some
    setting.

7
Defining intelligence
  • You can take your pick of definitions but most
    agree that intelligence has to do with the
    related capacities of
  • i.) Learning from experience
  • ii.) Adapting to ones environment
  • Think of a person lacking either of these, and
    you pick out people who seem to lack intelligence
  • Note however that very few formal tests of
    intelligence really demand subjects to do either
    of these!

8
Defining intelligence
  • Factor analystic studies (Sternberg, 1981) of
    informal views of an 'ideally intelligent' person
    capture these characteristics
  • They emphasize practical problem solving and
    social competence (the same thing?) as signs of
    intelligence, along with a factor loaded on
    verbal ability

9
Early History on the Intellectually Impaired-Era
of Extermination
  • prevailing attitude is one of extermination
  • Individuals with disabilities were seldom allowed
    to live since physical prowess was valued and
    essential for the survival of the group

10
Prehistoric Time
  • abandonment
  • murdered
  • failure to survive (hard life style)

11
Early Historic Time (1552 B.C.-300 A.D.)
  • very few records
  • first written reference found in Egyptian papyrus
    (Therapeutic Papyrus of Thebes)
  • persons with the most severe disabilities allowed
    to survive if able
  • many forced to beg for food and shelter
  • occurrence of a disability viewed as sickness and
    as a punishment from God for wrongdoing by the
    parent

12
Aristotle stated that man differs from animals by
intellect alone--there was no concept of
individual differences--and intellect was noted
by man's ability to speak.
  • Therefore if an individual was unable to speak
    then s/he was no different than an animal.

13
Era of Ridicule
  • During this 1400 years most of the attitude of
    people concerning others with disabilities was
    that of ridicule or neglect.
  • persons viewed with a mixture of fear and
    reverence.

14
Middle Ages (300-1350 A.D.)
  • emphasis was on "other" world--little concern for
    anything but religion and one's own soul
  • All forms of deviance were seen in supernatural
    or superstitious terms
  • Mental illness and mental retardation seen as
    same condition

15
Renaissance (1350-1700 A.D.)
  • During this time attention shifted from "other
    world" to man, his nature, dignity, and senses
  • spirit of curiosity gave birth to medicine and
    attempts to improve man's condition on earth
  • differences in disabilities were noted but
    recognized only the severest disabilities

16
Era of Asylum
  • lasted approximately 100 years
  • concept of equality and the concept of humanism
    arose

17
Age of Reason (1700-1800 A.D.)
  • Humanism stressed dignity of person
  • Phrases were heard such as "all men are created
    equal" and "equality, brotherhood and liberty"
  • Individualism instead of Group stressed
  • Scientific approach was first used with problems
    relating to disabilities (e.g., MR)

18
1800's
  • Era of Education
  • Time when mass education became emphasis instead
    of education of the few--grew out of 1700's
    concern for enlightenment and individual worth
  • During the movement for training
    industrialization shifted man's work to machines
    education became very important

19
Movement for Training (1800-1890)
  • society became aware of the "slow learner"
  • period of optimism-education seen as a "cure"
  • significant people
  • Louis Braille
  • Edouard Seguin
  • Guggenbuhl (1940's)

20
Era of Indictment
  • late 1800's is period of disillusionment and
    pessimism
  • recognize the fact that there is no "cure" for
    mental retardation
  • research of time indicated that MR and other
    behavior disorders were prime factors in crime
    and degradation in country

21
1900's
  • time of Measurement (1890-1919 A.D.)
  • first mental test was devised (Cattell)
  • first special class was founded in the U.S. in
    Providence, RI in 1896
  • first program to prepare special education
    teachers developed at NY University (1906)
  • Significant people
  • Maria Montessori
  • Lewis Terman

22
Time of Social Control (1900-1930)
  • publication of 1912 research study of the
    Kallikak family by Goddard States
  • era overlapped the Era of Measurement and Social
    Control

23
History of Intelligence Testing
  • Head Circumference (Francis Galton 1880) first
    attempts to measure intelligence
  • Binet-Simon (Alfred Binet 1909) first
    intelligence test
  • comissioned by French gov to separate children
    into vocational vs academic schooling
  • did not design test to measure intelligence
  • created concept of mental age (MA)

24
Psychological Measurement in the 19th Century
  • Interest in science and measurement
  • Emergence of psychology as an experimental and
    quantitative science
  • Interest in hereditary and neurological
    (measurable) basis of cognitive abilities
    (Galton)

25
History of Psychological Testing
  • Basis of psychological testing
  • The significance of individual differences
  • Why?
  • Interest in performance of professionals
  • Chinese system (2200 BC)
  • 19th century Europe

26
Psychological Measurement in the 20th Century
  • Public education and availability of limited
    funds
  • Needs of the military for allocating personnel
    (WW I)

27
The History of IQ testing
  • First IQ tests developed by Alfred Binet
  • Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon
  • 30 items of increasing difficulty - 1905
  • Revision 1908 age specific versions
  • These were developed to identify children who
    needed special education -
  • Binet believed that IQ could be increased by
    education

28
The history of IQ testing
  • Early IQ tests gave estimate of childrens MENTAL
    age by comparing their performance on various
    tasks with performance of children at various
    ages

29
The history of IQ testing
  • calculated as
  • IQ Mental Age
  • Chronological age x 100
  • Nowadays NORM referenced.. that is the average
    performance of a group is calculated, then
    individual comparison

30
Henry Herbert Goddard
  • Definition of Intelligence
  • "our thesis is that the chief determiner of
    human conduct is a unitary mental process which
    we call intelligence that this process is
    conditioned by a nervous mechanism which is
    inborn that the degree of efficiency to be
    attained by that nervous mechanism and the
    consequent grade of intelligence or mental level
    for each individual is determined by the kind of
    chromosomes that come together with the union of
    the germ cells That it is but little affected by
    any later influences except such serious
    accidents as may destroy part of the mechanism"
    (Goddard, 1920, p. 1).

31
Henry Herbert Goddard (1866-1957)
  • Major Contributions
  • Translated the Binet-Simon intelligence scale
    into English (1908)
  • Distributed 22,000 copies of the translated Binet
    scale and 88,000 answer blanks across the United
    States (1908-1915)
  • Established the first laboratory for the
    psychological study of mentally retarded persons
    (1910)
  • Helped to draft the first American law mandating
    special education (1911)
  • Strongly argued the hereditarian position

32
Henry Herbert Goddard
33
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
  • Lewis Terman (1916-72) first U.S. intelligence
    test
  • Interested in gifted children
  • translated and modified Binets scale
  • Heavy reliance on vocabulary/language skills
  • incorporated old items from the Binet scale, plus
    some new items
  • poorly standardized on 1000 children and 400
    adults who were not selected with care

34
Lewis Terman (1916-72)
  • Developed Intelligence Quotient
  • IQ (MA/CA)100
  • MA Mental Age CA Chronological Age

35
1916 Stanford-BinetSample Items for 12 yr olds
Practical Problem Solving
Vocabulary
Grammar
  • Orange.
  • 45. Sportive.
  • 80. Exaltation.
  • 92. Theosophy
  • FOR THE STARTED AN WE COUNTRY EARLY AT HOUR
  • TO ASKED PAPER MY TEACHER CORRECT I MY
  • A DEFENDS DOG GOOD HIS BRAVELY MASTER

Interpretation
Similarities
Memory
  • Snake, cow, sparrow
  • Book, teacher, newspaper
  • Wool, cotton, leather

3-1-8-7-9 6-9-4-8-2 5-2-9-6-1
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A brief history of intelligence testing
  • The 1937 revision of the scale was improved
  • It had wider range (more room on the floor floor
    and ceiling)
  • It had two parallel forms to permit re-testing
  • It was standardized on a carefully selected
    population, of 100 children in each six-month
    interval from 6 to 14 years, and 100 in each year
    from 15 to 18, with control of sex, selected from
    17 different communities
  • Alas, they were all white and (therefore) above
    average SES
  • The test was re-normed in 1960 and 1972, and
    revised completely in 1986 (SB-IV)

37
IQ testing in the USA
  • In the USA strong supporters of IQ testing were
    scientists who believed that IQ is MAINLY
    genetic, and that society should breed a superior
    group of people
  • (This is called eugenics)

38
  • Army Alpha/Beta IQ Test (1917) designed for WWI
    recruits
  • Assumed to be testing native intelligence
  • Assumed intelligence and literacy independent
  • Alpha for literates Beta for illiterates and
    non-English speakers
  • Alpha subtests Oral Directions Arithmetic
    Practical Judgment Analogies Disarranged
    Sentences Number Series Information
  • Beta subtests Memory Matching Picture
    Completion Geometric Construction

39
Army Alpha Results by Years of Education
40
Army Alpha Results by Years of Education
41
Army Beta Results by Years of Education
42
S J Gould - A Nation of Morons
  • YERKES said that
  • These tests measure
  • NATIVE INTELLECTUAL ABILITY
  • in other words intelligence which was unaffected
    by culture or educational opportunities

43
S J Gould - A Nation of Morons
  • Gould reports many problems in the administration
    of the tests
  • Illiterate men were allocated to the Alpha
  • The queues for the Beta became so long that some
    men were reallocated to the Alpha
  • Many who failed the Alpha were never recalled

44
S J Gould - A Nation of Morons
  • The BETA test still required men to use pencils
    and paper - and many had never been educated at
    all
  • Gould suggests that all the results should be
    viewed with scepticism

45
S J Gould - A Nation of Morons
  • However the results were used by the army and had
    great impact - mental testing became..
  • scientifically established
  • by 1921 commercial and educational establishments
    were using the tests

46
Test conclusions
  • The average mental age of white American adults
    stood at 13
  • It was possible to grade European immigrants by
    their country of origin.
  • People of Northern Western Europe higher than
    the Slavs who were higher than people of southern
    Europe
  • Black people scored lowest of all
  • These facts were used to provide a genetic
    explanation for the differences

47
S J Gould - A Nation of Morons
  • Carl Brigham (Yerkes colleague)
  • Explained the differences in terms of racial
    superiority
  • we notice the Einsteins of the world BECAUSE
    they are exceptional for their Jewish race

48
S J Gould - A Nation of Morons
  • Why is this not true?
  • Immigration from different parts of Europe took
    place at different times
  • The most recent immigrants scored worse on the
    written tests .. If native IQ was being measured
    written English should have NO effect
  • Test scores rose with length of stay in the USA
  • Those who had been in the USA longer were more
    familiar with American customs products

49
S J Gould - A Nation of Morons
  • Brigham
  • argued that it was a sign of intelligence to
    emigrate to the USA and that the brightest came
    sooner!!
  • Later immigrants were progressively more stupid

50
S J Gould - A Nation of Morons
  • Brigham
  • argued that it was a sign of intelligence to
    emigrate to the USA and that the brightest came
    sooner!!
  • Later immigrants were progressively more stupid

51
S J Gould - A Nation of Morons
  • Despite the evidence IQ tests took hold
  • 1924 US Congress passed the Immigration
    Restriction Act
  • The Act set quotas for immigration to the US
    based on figures 30 years earlier when
    immigration from Southern Eastern Europe was low

52
S J Gould - A Nation of Morons
  • Gould called this -
  • A victory for scientific racism
  • During the next 20 years conditions in eastern
    Europe worsened for Slavs and Jews
  • (The Nazi years)

53
S J Gould - A Nation of Morons
  • Gould estimates that
  • Immigration quotas barred up to 6 million people
    from entering the USA

54
S J Gould - A Nation of Morons
  • There is still no good evidence to suggest that
    IQ differences are the result of genetic
    differences

55
S J Gould - A Nation of Morons
  • There is still no clear operational definition of
    intelligence
  • Both race and IQ are political rather than
    biological facts
  • (Socially constructed)

56
  • Weschler Intelligence Scale (David Weschler,
    1939-81) designed to show subtest scores
  • Less reliant on language/vocabulary skills
  • Contains Verbal and Performance subtests
  • Performance compared to same age peers raw
    score has different interpretation depending on
    age
  • Designed widely used test for adults (WAIS),
    children (WISC), and preschoolers (WPPSI)

57
WAIS-R Testing kit
Testing Booklet
Puzzle Pieces
Story Cards
Block Design
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Other intelligence tests
  • There are myriad of other tests of intelligence
    including
  • British Ability Scale / Differential Ability
    Scale (DAS)
  • Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (PPVT-R)
  • Columbia Mental Maturity Scale (CMMS)
  • Ravens Progressive Matrices
  • many more
  • - Some allow group testing, by using
    closed-choice formats, allowing for mass screening

60
Matrices Example Item
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The IQ Controversy
  • On average, African-Americans score 10-15 points
    lower on IQ tests than Whites

Used by some to argue for superiority of Whites
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Conclusion to IQ Controversy
  • Difference in scores is not due to bias in test
    construction or administration
  • Difference in scores is not due to between group
    genetic differences
  • Difference in scores is partly due to
    socio-economic class differences
  • Differences may be due to cultural and caste
    type factors (racism, societal expectations) -
    still being investigated

65
Are all intelligence tests the same?
  • Ideally IQ scores obtained with different
    instruments should be identical
  • In reality, the instrument makes a difference A
    Wechsler IQ may not be identical to a
    Stanford-Binet IQ
  • It is important to specify the instrument

66
Can't we make intelligence tests the same?
  • Distributional characteristics should make
    interchanging IQ scores easy
  • Alas, intelligence is not perfectly normal
  • there is a hump at the bottom due to many factors
    which impinge on intelligence in early
    development
  • Some have argued that assortative mating has
    flattened the distribution ( more very low and
    high scores than normal)

67
Does IQ matter?
  • Terman Oden (1959) followed ultra-high IQ
    children (IQ gt 140) for 40 years
  • The gifted children were heavier at birth
    walked, talked, and matured earlier their
    general health was better they earned more
    degrees and more money
  • However, none went on to become super-successful
    Einstein-types
  • Some suggested the positive findings might be due
    to selection bias, since the initial selection
    was based on teacher ratings
  • Esquire magazine's "the smartest people in
    America"
  • Marilyn Von Savant and her mistakes

68
Is IQ innate?
  • The literature on IQ heritability is huge and
    controversial
  • Heritability in IQ has been estimated between
    0.50 and 0.72 ( 50 - 72 of variability is due
    to genes)
  • The best evidence comes from twin studies (ie.
    Bouchard, 1984)
  • IQ of identical twins reared apart (even in very
    different circumstances) correlate almost as high
    as those of identical twins reared together
  • Honzik (1957) showed almost no correlation
    between IQ of adopted children and IQ of their
    adoptive parents

69
Is IQ due to environment?
  • However, children reared under conditions of
    little human contact can show huge improvements
    (30-50 IQ points) after being placed in normal
    environments
  • Jensen (1977) tested the hypothesis of cumulative
    effects of environmental disadvantage,
    hypothesizing that older deprived children should
    do worse on IQ tests than their younger siblings
  • He found some support for this hypothesis- about
    1 point per year for ten years between 5 and 16
    years of age, estimated to be higher if earlier
    years were included
  • Disadvantaged adoptees into advantaged homes
    often out-perform their pre-adoptive peers (Scarr
    Weinberg, 1983)

70
Is IQ due to environment?
  • A purely innate general intelligence should be
    stable over generations
  • Intelligence is not stable
  • Standardization samples major IQ tests between
    1932 and 1981 tended to be higher than their
    predecessors
  • Overall, humankind appears to have picked up
    nearly 14 IQ points in the last century
  • Similar observations have been made in other
    countries using other tests
  • However, I note that this does not seem to have
    stopped humankind from engaging on a huge scale
    this century in some dangerously stupid
    behaviors

71
Is IQ due to environment?
  • "psychologists should stop saying that IQ tests
    measure intelligence. They should say that IQ
    tests measure abstract problem-solving ability
    (APSA), a term that accurately conveys our
    ignorance. We know that people solve problems on
    IQ tests we suspect that those problems are so
    detached, or so abstracted from reality, that the
    ability to solve them can diverge over time from
    the real-world problem solving ability called
    intelligence thus far we now little else."
  • Flynn, J.R. (1987). Massive IQ gains in 14
    nations What IQ tests really measure,
    Psychological Bulletin, 101, 88, 171-191.

72
  • Modern IQ Test Design
  • Reliability (over time)
  • Test-retest
  • Internal consistency (items hang together)
  • Validity (what it measures)
  • Content (face validity)
  • Criterion (relationship with other knowns)
  • Construct (ability to differentiate)

73
Want to learn more about intelligence? A
comprehensive exploration of intelligence
theories throughout history - from Plato to
Jensen - is available at http//www.indiana.edu/
intell/map.html
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